Alphabetical list

Afferent : Generally, a connection or pathway to a node. 1. The complementary terms afferent and efferent were first used by Unzer (1771; see English translation, 1851, pp. 69, 254) to indicate toward or away from, respectively, the central nervous system (Meckel, 1817) or, conversely, away from or toward the non-neuronal tissues of the body; see Sherrington (1900, p. 784), Clarke & O'Malley (1996, p. 342). These neutral terms avoid functional implications that may or may not be valid; for example, afferent information from the skin may not be sensory if it does not reach the level of consciousness. 2. A connection or projection to a gray matter region, neuron type (Bota & Swanson, 2007), neuron (Waldeyer, 1891), or site. The preferred synonym is input. more details

Afterbrain ( Baer, 1837 ) : Synonym for medulla (Winslow, 1733); term introduced for vertebrates by Baer (1837, p. 107, in the original German, "Nachhirn"). Also see His (1895, p. 162). more details

Amacrine cell ( Cajal, 1899-1904 ) : A neuron (Waldeyer, 1891) characterized by amacrine extensions. They were discovered in the retina (Herophilus, 335-263 BC), in the olfactory bulb (Weitbrecht, 1744), and in the peripheral nervous system (Meckel, 1817) where they are called interstitial cells; they were regarded as having no axon (Kölliker, 1896), and thus "amacrine" (see Cajal, 1899-1904). Examples of neurons with amacrine extensions and/or axon, and/or dendrites (His, 1889) are now known; they are very common in nerve nets. more details

Amacrine connection : A bidirectional connection between two nodes established by amacrine extensions arising in both nodes from specific types of amacrine cells. more details

Amacrine extension : A neuron extension that in a chain normally forms a reciprocal (bidirectional) synapse (Foster & Sherrington, 1897) with a like extension of another neuron (Waldeyer, 1891); that is, an amacrine extension may function as an axon (Kölliker, 1896) or a dendrite (His, 1889) in a chain, conducting in either direction depending on functional activity in the neural network; see Swanson (2003, pp. 23, 243). An amacrine extension may also form unidirectional synapses. A synonym is amacrine process. more details

Amacrine process : Synonym for amacrine extension; see Swanson (2003, pp. 23, 243). more details

Anterior ( Aristotle ) : Rostral (Schulze, 1893) in relation to the longitudinal axis (Barclay, 1803); commonly used in this way for comparative anatomy, as was the case for Aristotle in De Partibus Animalium; see, for example, translation by Ogle (1912, 684b-25). Vicq d'Azyr (1786, pp. 51, 58) first clearly defined the term as in front or toward the face, corresponding in most vertebrates to rostral, and in humans to ventral (Schulze, 1893) or anterior (Galen, c177). Discarding the ambiguous terms anterior and posterior has been urged since at least 1880 (Spitzka, 1880, p. 75). Formal descriptors of position in anatomy can be traced to this statement by Aristotle in De Partibus Animalium, "it is a universal law that, as regards above and below, front and back, right and left, the nobler and more honourable part invariably is placed uppermost, in front, and on the right, rather than in the opposite positions, unless some more important object stands in the way"; see translation by Ogle (1912, 665a; also see 667b, 669b). In Historia Animalium he clarified the problems with positional information in comparative anatomy, "In man, above all other animals, the terms ‘upper' and ‘lower' are used in harmony with their natural positions; for in him, upper and lower have the same meaning as when they are applied to the universe as a whole. In like manner the terms, ‘in front', ‘behind', ‘right' and ‘left', are used in accordance with their natural sense. But in regard to other animals, in some cases these distinctions do not exist, and in others they do, but in a vague way. For instance, the head with all animals is up and above in respect to their bodies; but man alone, as has been said, has, in maturity, this part uppermost in respect to the material universe"; see translation by Thompson (1910, 294a-25). Also see Standring (2008, Fig. 1). more details

Anterior ( Galen, c177 ) : Ventral (Schulze, 1893) in relation to the longitudinal axis (Barclay, 1803); commonly used in this way for human and other primate anatomy, as was the case for Galen; see translation by Singer (1999, p. 129), also see translation by Duckworth (1962, pp. 229, 231). Also see anterior (Aristotle). more details

Anteroposterior axis ( Swanson & Bota, 2010 ) : Often used as synonym for rostrocaudal axis in most vertebrates and for the dorsoventral axis in humans; see Standring (2008, Fig. 1). Application of this old and confusing designation is discouraged; see anterior (Aristotle) and anterior (Galen, c177). Also spelled anterior-posterior axis. more details

Arachnoid ( A ; Blasius, 1666 ) : A delicate membrane resembling a spider's web interposed between dura (Galen, c177) and pia (Galen, c192), and separated from pia by subarachnoid space (Magendie, 1827). It is histologically similar to pia, and the two are often considered together as leptomeninges; see Dorland's (2003), Standring (2008, p. 389). The arachnoid was first illustrated for macrodissected adult humans by Casserio (1627), and described and named by Blasius (1666). more details

Arachnoidea mater : Synonym for arachnoid (Blasius, 1666). more details

Arborization ( Cajal, 1888 ) : Short form of terminal arborization (Cajal, 1888). more details

Architecture ( Swanson & Bota, 2010 ) : The conceptual structure and overall logical organization of a system-here the nervous system (Monro, 1783)-from the point of view of its function or design; see Oxford English Dictionary (1989) and Sherrington (1906, pp. 271, 308). more details

Autonomic ganglia ( GA ; Langley, 1900 ) : A topographic division of vertebrate peripheral ganglia with gray matter regions that are distinguished from the craniospinal ganglia, and for description are divided into paravertebral ganglia, prevertebral ganglia (Gaskell, 1886), and terminal ganglia (Gaskell, 1886). Galen (c173-c192) described at least three pairs; see translations by Duckworth (1962, pp. 217-218), May (1968, pp. 695-696), Smith (1971, p. 179). The term was introduced by Langley (1900, pp. 677-678). more details

Autonomic nerves ( AUN ; Langley, 1898 ) : A topographic division of nerves (Herophilus, c335-280 BC). An autonomic nerve is a vertebrate nerve (Herophilus, c335-280 BC)-and a communicating or anastomotic network of branches (a prevertebral plexus or a terminal plexus) sometimes associated with it-that appears macroscopically to arise in the peripheral nervous system (Meckel, 1817) from an autonomic ganglion (Langley, 1900) rather than a craniospinal nerve. In the second century, Galen-see translations by Singer (1999, p. 142) and Duckworth (1962, p.111)-described at least some of them in animals except humans, and the term was introduced by Langley (1898, p. 241). more details

Axial plane : Synonym for transverse plane (Henle, 1855) in human radiology, also referred to as transaxial and viewed as if from the feet toward the head; see Standring (2005, p. 3). more details

Axon ( Kölliker, 1896 ) : A neuron extension that in a chain normally conducts information away from the dendrites (His, 1889) and/or cell body (Deiters, 1865) to axon terminals (Barker, 1899), the presynaptic compartment (De Camilli et al., 2001) of synapses (Foster & Sherrington, 1897). Most neurons (Waldeyer, 1891) have one axon trunk with a variable number of axon collaterals (Cajal, 1899), and the presynaptic compartment may be (a) an axon varicosity (although not all varicosities form synapses) also called a synapse-of-passage, (b) a terminal-of-passage along the axon trunk or axon collaterals, or (c) an axon terminal (synonym: terminal bouton) at the end of an axon collateral or the axon trunk; see Swanson, 2004, Fig. 5). The axon was probably discovered microscopically in unfixed molluscan material by Dutrochet (1824, Pl. 2, fig. 2; see Van der Loos, 1967, pp. 22-23) and for vertebrates by Remak (1837; his primitive band). Axons were first distinguished clearly from dendrites by Wagner (1846, see Tab. 3, Fig. 43-a; see Van der Loos, 1967, p. 37), and named thus by Kölliker (1896, p. 2). It is common in vertebrates for the axon to arise from the cell body or a dendrite, as first demonstrated microscopically in macerated tissue from the Torpedo electric organ by Wagner (1846, Tab. 3, Fig. 43-c; see Van der Loos, 1967, pp. 38-39). more details

Axon bifurcation : Y-shaped branching of an axon trunk, generating two bifurcation branches (Cajal, 1899); discovered in hagfish Golgi material by Nansen (1887, pp. 158, 213, "dichotomous subdivisions of nerve tubes"), named bifurcation by Cajal (1889, Fig. 3 and p. 91). more details

Axon bifurcation branch : One of the two products of an axon bifurcation; discovered in hagfish Golgi material by Nansen (1887, pp. 158, 213), named bifurcation branch by Cajal (1889, pp. 91, 95). more details

Axon collateral ( Cajal, 1899 ) : A branch of an axon trunk that is typically thinner than the trunk and arises at a roughly right angle. First pointed out by Deiters (1865, Tab. 1, Fig. 1-b; see Van der Loos, 1967, p. 44), Golgi (1873) established their existence with his black reaction and noted their roughly right angle of origin (he called them branches or side fibrils); apparently named by Cajal (1899, p. 329, "collaterals of axons"). A short form is collateral (Waldeyer, 1891). more details

Axon connection ( Bota & Swanson, 2007 ) : A unidirectional connection established by an axon (Kölliker, 1896) or group of axons from a neuron type (Bota & Swanson, 2007) arising in one node and establishing synapses (Foster & Sherrington, 1897) in another node with another neuron or neuron type (Bota & Swanson, 2007). more details

Axon hillock ( Schaffer, 1893 ) : The expanded part of an axon trunk as it arises from the cell body (Deiters, 1865) or dendrite (His, 1889) of a neuron (Waldeyer, 1891), often distinguished by a relative absence of ribosomes; discovered in macerated microdissected ox spinal cord by Dieters (1865, Tab. 1, fig. 1) and named by Schaffer (1893, p. 850). Also see Peters et al. (1991, pp. 101-108). more details

Axon terminal ( Barker, 1899 ) : A swelling-terminal (Cajal, 1899)-at the end of an axon trunk, axon collateral (Cajal, 1899), or terminal arborization (Cajal, 1888) that is presynaptic and usually rather simple although more elaborate configurations are found. First illustrated by Deiters (1865, Tab. 1, Fig. 1-b; Tab. 2, Fig. 6-b; see Van der Loos, 1967, p. 44), first interpreted correctly by Cajal (1888, Tab. I), and named thus by Barker (1899, p. 88, "terminals of one axone"). more details

Axon trunk : The segment of an axon (Kölliker, 1896) that begins at the distal (Barclay, 1803) end of the axon hillock (Schaffer, 1893) and extends distally, typically generating axon collaterals (Cajal, 1899) and remaining the thickest part of the overall axonal arborization; it comes to an abrupt end at a bifurcation (Cajal, 1889), when present. Galen in the second century used the term trunk for nerves (Herophilus, c335-280 BC) as a whole; see translation by May (1968, pp. 554, 572-573). Remak (1838) discovered that axons arise from neurons (Waldeyer, 1891). more details

Axon varicosity : A swelling along an unmyelinated axon-or unmyelinated segment of an axon (Kölliker, 1896)-that may either form a bouton-of-passage, or may not form a synapse (Foster & Sherrington, 1897) but simply reflect the presence of one or more mitochondria with a diameter greater than the axon. Ehrenberg (1833, p. 453; also see Van der Loos, 1967, Fig. 8) described and named varicose fibers, Cajal (1888, p. 4) described and named varicosities of the neural prolongation [axon] in Golgi preparations of avian cerebellum (Aristotle). more details

Axon-of-passage : Segment of an axon (Kölliker, 1896) that passes through a gray matter region without forming synapses (Foster & Sherrington, 1897). Preferable to fiber-of-passage (Cajal, 1894a) because more accurate; also see Cowan et al. (1972, p. 38). more details

Basal ganglia ( Carpenter, 1976 ) : For macrodissected adult humans it includes the caudate and lenticular nuclei and the amygdala, and is thus not synonymous with cerebral nuclei (Swanson, 2000); p. 496. more details

Basal ganglia ( Ferrier, 1876 ) : In modern terms includes for macrodissected adult monkeys and humans the cerebral nuclei (Swanson, 2000) and interbrain (Baer, 1837) considered together; pp. 8, 236. more details

Basal ganglia ( Strong & Elwyn, 1943 ) : Synonym for basal ganglia of telencephalon (Ranson, 1920) in macrodissected adult humans, and thus not synonymous with cerebral nuclei (Swanson, 2000); p. 319. more details

Basal ganglia ( Warwick & Williams, 1973 ) : Synonym for cerebral nuclei (Swanson, 2000); see Warwick & Williams (1973, p. 805; and Williams & Warwick, 1980, p. 864). Its use is discouraged because reference to ganglia (Galen, c173) in the cerebrospinal axis (Meckel, 1817) is archaic; and because "basal ganglia" today usually refers to a functional system that includes components in the forebrain (Goette, 1873) and midbrain (Baer, 1837), rather than to a topographic division of the endbrain (Kuhlenbeck, 1927); see Anthoney (1994, pp. 106-109), DeLong & Wichmann (2007), and Federative Committee on Anatomical Terminology (1998, *A14.1.09.501). more details

Basal ganglia of telencephalon ( Ranson, 1920 ) : For macrodissected adult humans it includes the caudate and lentiform (putamen and globus pallidus) nuclei, amygdala, and claustrum (p. 252) and is thus not synonymous with cerebral nuclei (Swanson, 2000). More recently it was used in Ranson's sense by for example Clark (1951, p. 968). more details

Basal nuclei ( Clark, 1951 ) : Synonym for basal ganglia (Strong & Elwyn, 1943) in macrodissected adult humans, and thus not synonymous with cerebral nuclei (Swanson, 2000); p. 968. Others employing this usage include Warwick & Williams (1973, p. 976; and Williams & Warwick, 1980, p. 1032), International Anatomical Nomenclature Committee (1983, p. A72). more details

Basal nuclei ( Warwick & Williams, 1973 ) : Synonym for cerebral nuclei (Swanson, 2000); see Warwick & Williams (1973, p. 805; and Williams & Warwick, 1980, p. 864) and Swanson (1998, p. 200). more details

Basic plan : A high level model of nervous system (Monro, 1783) structure-function organization that only contains minimal, essential, or cannonical features; see Jacobson (1991, pp. 6-17), Swanson (2003, 2007). Bauplan (see Kuhlenbeck, 1967, pp. 159-165; Brusca & Brusca, 1990, p. 43) and general plan (see Bullock & Horridge, 1965, p. 11) are synonyms. "General plan of the body" was used as long ago as Aristotle, for example in De Partibus Animalium; see translation by Ogle (1912, 684b-15). more details

Between brain : Synonym for interbrain (Baer, 1837). Used by for example Obersteiner & Hill (1900, p. 72), Herrick (1915, p. 121), Williams & Warwick (1980, p. 864), and Nauta & Feirtag (1986, p. 39). ‘Tween-brain is also used; see Nauta & Feirtag (1986, p. 38), Nieuwenhuys et al. (2008, p. 9). more details

Bifurcation ( Cajal, 1889 ) : Short form of axon bifurcation; called thus by Cajal (1889, Fig. 3 and p. 91, "bifurcación" in Spanish). more details

Bifurcation branch ( Cajal, 1889 ) : Short form of axon bifurcation branch; called thus by Cajal (1889, pp. 91, 95). more details

Bilateral ( Aristotle ) : On the both sides of the body in an animal with bilateral symmetry. The term was used thus by Aristotle in Historia Animalium; see translation by Thompson (1910, e.g., 493a-15), also see Standring (2008, p. xxii). more details

Bilateral symmetry : Symmetry where only one plane, the median plane (Henle, 1855), divides the body into roughly mirror image right and left halves, at least when viewed from the exterior. Aristotle in De Partibus Animalium laid the foundation for describing animal symmetry and positional information; see translation by Ogle (1912, e.g., 667b), "the body of every sanguineous animal that is capable of locomotion is bilateral; for in such animals there is a distinguishable before and behind, a right and left, an above and below". In Historia Animalium he clarified the problems with positional information in comparative anatomy, "In man, above all other animals, the terms ‘upper' and ‘lower' are used in harmony with their natural positions; for in him, upper and lower have the same meaning as when they are applied to the universe as a whole. In like manner the terms, ‘in front', ‘behind', ‘right' and ‘left', are used in accordance with their natural sense. But in regard to other animals, in some cases these distinctions do not exist, and in others they do, but in a vague way. For instance, the head with all animals is up and above in respect to their bodies; but man alone, as has been said, has, in maturity, this part uppermost in respect to the material universe"; see translation by Thompson (1910, 294a-25). Also see Willmer (1990, p. 15), Brusca & Brusca (1990, p. 46). more details

Body ( Aristotle ) : The physical or material frame or structure of humans or any other animal; the whole material organism viewed as an organic entity. Aristotle used the term in this sense; see translation by Thompson (1910, Book 1), also see Oxford English Dictionary (1989, definition 1). All bodies have an age in the life cycle and a sex (female, male, mixed). In taxonomy, only the physical characteristics common to a taxon (like species) are considered, not the variable physical characteristics of individuals; see Simpson (1961, p. 18). more details

Body system : A set of interconnected or interdependent parts that forms a complex unity with a specific function; see Dorland's (2003), Oxford English Dictionary (1989). A set of body systems together describes completely the structure-function organization of the body-a systems description of body; see Brash (1951, p. 4), Williams (1995, pp. 2, 15). more details

Bouton : Short form of terminal bouton (Auerbach, 1898). more details

Bouton-of-passage : A synapse (Foster & Sherrington, 1897) formed by an axon varicosity (Cajal, 1888); "bouton en passant" in French; see Peters et al. (1991, pp. 150, 187, 358). more details

Brain ( BR ; Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus, c1700 BC ) : See invertebrate brain (>1840) and vertebrate brain (Cuvier, 1800). An ancient Egyptian hieroglyph that refers to the human brain probably dates back some five thousand years; see Longrigg (1998, p. 84), Nunn (2002, pp. 43, 50-51, 217), and Rocca (2003, p. 21). more details

Brain ( Varolio, 1573 ) : In modern terms Varolio's definition of the human brain (cerebrum in Latin) excluded the cerebellum (Aristotle), as well as the midbrain (Baer, 1837), pons (Haller, 1747), and medulla (Winslow, 1733), the latter three of which he included in spinal marrow (Varolio, 1573); Fig. 2(1-3) on f. 19r. more details

Brain ( Vesalius, 1543 ) : In modern terms Vesalius's definition of the human brain excluded the medulla (Winslow, 1733) and pons (Haller, 1747), which he included with the spinal marrow (Vesalius, 1543); see translation by Richardson & Carman (2002, pp. 176-177, 205). more details

Brainstem ( Burdach, 1822 ) : Basically a combination of the brainstem (Schwalbe, 1881) and the cerebral nuclei (Swanson, 2000), or basal ganglia (Warwick & Williams, 1973), as originally defined for macrodissected adult humans; p. 11. It corresponds to the oblong marrow (Willis, 1664), and has been used more recently in Burdach's sense by for example Herrick (1915, p. 114), Ranson & Clarke (1959, Fig. 32). more details

Brainstem ( Jacobsohn, 1909 ) : A combination of the medulla (Winslow, 1733), pons (Haller, 1747), and midbrain (Baer, 1837) as originally defined for adult humans; p. 1. Used in this sense more recently by for example Olszewski & Baxter (1954, p. 7), Williams (1995, p. 910), Nieuwenhuys et al. (2008, p. 3). more details

Brainstem ( Schwalbe, 1881 ) : A topographic division of the vertebrate brain (Cuvier, 1800) that is a combination of the medulla (Winslow, 1733), pons (Haller, 1747), midbrain (Baer, 1837), and interbrain (Baer, 1837), and thus excludes the endbrain (Kuhlenbeck, 1927) or cerebrum (Obersteiner & Hill, 1900), and the cerebellum (Aristotle). Used in this sense by Schwalbe (1881, p. 396), and more recently by for example Mettler, 1948, Fig. 119), Carpenter (1976, pp. 36-37), Nauta & Feirtag (1986, Fig. 69), Brodal (1992, p. 285), Swanson (2003, p. 243). more details

Bulb : Synonym for medulla (Winslow, 1733); introduced for macrodissected adult humans by Chaussier (1807, p. 120). more details

Caudal ( Cleland, 1879 ) : Away from the mouth along the longitudinal axis (Barclay, 1803) of the body; the opposite of rostral (Schulze, 1893). Used by Cleland (1879, p. 179) who paired it with cephalic (away from the head or toward the tail). Also see rostrocaudal axis. more details

Cell ( Hooke, 1665 ) : The fundamental structure-function unit of all plants and animals; see Schwann (1839). Discovered microscopically and named in thin sections of cork by Hooke (1665, p. 112 ff.); see Standring (2008, Ch. 1). more details

Cell body ( Deiters, 1865 ) : When referring to neurons (Waldeyer, 1891), it is the trophic center exclusive of neuron extensions-axon (Kölliker,1896), dendrites (His, 1889), and amacrine extensions-with a cell nucleus (Brown, 1833) and perikaryon (Foster & Sherrington, 1897). For neurons the term cell body was used by Deiters (1865, "Körper der Zelle" in the original German; see Van der Loos, 1967, p. 42). Also see Standring (2008, p. 41). more details

Cell group : Often used as a synonym for gray matter region; see Cajal (1909, p. 41), Clark (1938, p. 9), Berman (1968, p. xi), Nauta & Haymaker (1969, pp. 141-142), Swanson (2003, p. 64). Synonyms include cellular aggregate (see Berman, 1968, p. xi), cell collection (see Berman, 1968, p. xi). more details

Cell nucleus ( Brown, 1833 ) : A rounded organelle in the cells (Hooke, 1665) of all organisms except bacteria and similar forms that is enclosed in a double membrane and contains the genetic material of the cell; see Oxford English Dictionary (1989). Not to be confused with gray matter nucleus. Clearly described and named by Brown (1833, p. 709). more details

Center : This term has multiple connotations. It is often used to indicate the site of a particular function, or as a rough synonym for node. It was used essentially in the latter sense as far back as Manfridi (1490; see Singer 1917, p. 108) and Bartholin (1662, p. 142). Of course center can also refer to the middle point of an object. more details

Central ( Barclay, 1803 ) : Toward the center of the body. Barclay (1803, pp. 120-121, 164) introduced a formal distinction between central and peripheral (Barclay, 1803), although use of the term as toward the center of the body goes back at least to Aristotle in De Partibus Animalium; see translation of Ogle (1912, 672-34). more details

Central canal ( C ; Henle, 1871 ) : The narrow, sometimes occluded part of the ventricles (Hippocrates) that is caudal (Cleland, 1879) to the fourth ventricle (Galen, c177), in the caudal (Cleland, 1879) end of the medulla (Winslow, 1733) and in the spinal cord (Galen, c162-c166). At least the initial rostral (Schulze, 1893) part of the central canal of macrodissected adult animals not including humans was observed in the second century by Galen-see translations by De Lacy (1980, pp. 447, 453), May (1968, p. 416), and Duckworth (1962, p. 14)-and was named such by Henle (1871, p. 42), if not earlier. more details

Central ganglion ( GC ) : A ganglion (Galen, c173) of an invertebrate central nerve cord; see Bullock & Horridge (1965, p. 52). more details

Central longitudinal communicating branch : The segment of an invertebrate central nerve cord trunk between two central ganglia associated with the corresponding central nerve cord as a whole. more details

Central nerve cord : For the invertebrate central nervous system (Meckel, 1817), a topographic division that is a longitudinal central nerve cord trunk with a series of more or less regularly spaced central ganglia along its course, and a central nerve cord trunk segment between two adjacent central ganglia called a central longitudinal communicating branch. For invertebrates, the central nervous system (Meckel, 1817) generally consists of one or more central nerve cords, with central transverse communicating branches-commonly referred to as commissures-typically interconnecting central ganglia between central nerve cords (e.g., a right and a left) and forming a ladder-like, or orthogon (see Reisinger, 1925, 1972), arrangement with rostral (Schulze, 1893) and caudal (Cleland, 1879) ends. The most rostral of the central ganglia is commonly called the invertebrate brain or cerebral ganglion. In annelids and arthropods the most rostral of the central ganglia generally lies dorsal (Barclay, 1803) to the digestive system and is called the supraesophageal ganglion, whereas the rest of the central nerve cord lies ventral (Schulze, 1893) to the digestive system. See Bullock & Horridge (1965). more details

Central nerve cord trunk : The equivalent of a white matter tract for an invertebrate central nerve cord, with central ganglia distributed along its length. more details

Central nervous system ( CNS ; Meckel, 1817 ) : In animals with bilateral symmetry, a topographic division that is an obvious condensation of the nervous system (Monro, 1783) in the longitudinal plane (Henle, 1855), lying on or near the median plane (Henle, 1855). For invertebrates this longitudinal division consists of one or more nerve cords, whereas for vertebrates it consists of a single, hollow, and dorsal (Barckay, 1803) cerebrospinal axis (Meckel, 1817). In adult Echinoderms, which are radially symmetrical, a presumptive CNS is formed by a circular cord with associated radial cords, but there is no dominant ganglion (Galen, c173) that could be considered an invertebrate brain; see Bullock & Horridge (1965, pp. 9-14), Heinzeller & Welsch (2001, p. 41). When a CNS is present, its obligate companion topographic division is a peripheral nervous system (Meckel, 1817). While a continuous brain (Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus, c1700 BC) and spinal cord (Galen, c162-c166) were known to Hippocrates in On the Sacred Disease and Fleshes (see translations by Adams, 1972, p. 351; and Potter, 1995, p. 139, respectively), the term central nervous system as currently understood for vertebrates was first used by Meckel (1817; see English translation, 1832, vol. 1, p. 152). more details

Central transverse communicating branch : The equivalent for invertebrates of a white matter tract interconnecting two central ganglia on different central nerve cords, like the rungs of a ladder. more details

Cerebellum ( CB ; Aristotle ) : The dorsal (Barclay, 1803) topographic division of the hindbrain (Baer, 1837), connected to the ventral (Schulze, 1893) division-the pons (Haller, 1747)-by a white matter tract, the middle cerebellar peduncle. The cerebellum was discovered and named by Aristotle (in De Partibus Animalium) based on macrodissection of a variety of animals not including humans; see translation by Thompson (1910, 494b 30). Older synonyms include parencephalon (Aristotle), hindbrain (Galen, c192). more details

Cerebral aqueduct ( AQ ; His 1895 ) : The part of the ventricles (Hippocrates) in the median plane (Henle, 1855) of the midbrain (Baer, 1837), continuous rostrally (Schulze, 1893) with the third ventricle (Galen, c173) and caudally (Cleland, 1879) with the fourth ventricle (Galen, c177). Vesalius (1543; see translation by Singer , 1952, p. 36; also see May, 1968, pp. 420-423) first clearly described it in macrodissected adult humans, Aranzi (1587, p. 549) first called it an aqueduct, and His (1895, p. 83) called it the cerebral aqueduct for macrodissected adult humans. more details

Cerebral cortex ( CTX ; Bauhin, 1605 ) : The dorsal (Barclay, 1803) topographic division of the endbrain (Kuhlenbeck, 1927), with a basically radial, laminated architecture; the ventral (Schulze, 1893) topographic division is the cerebral nuclei (Swanson, 2000). The cerebral cortex was described and illustrated for macrodissected adult humans by Vesalius (1543), see Singer translation (1952, p. 100 and Fig. 7), and the term itself was introduced for macrodissected adult humans by Bauhin (1605, p. 580), see Meyer (1971, p. 121). Common synonym is pallium (Burdach, 1822). more details

Cerebral ganglia ( Reil, 1809 ) : Basically synonymous with macrodissected adult human cerebral nuclei (Swanson, 2000); see Mayo translation (1823, p. 52). more details

Cerebral ganglion : Synonym for invertebrate brain; see Bullock & Horridge (1965, p. 1609). more details

Cerebral hemispheres ( Tiedemann, 1816 ) : Synonym for endbrain (Kuhlenbeck, 1927). It was used in this way by Teidemann (see 1826 translation, p. 15), and more recently by for example Strong & Elwyn (1943, pp. 13-16), Carpenter (1976, p. 21), Williams & Warwick (1980, p. 864), and Nauta & Feirtag (1986, p. 43), but has also been defined in many other ways. more details

Cerebral nuclei ( CNU ; Swanson, 2000 ) : The ventral (Schulze, 1893) topographic division of the endbrain (Kuhlenbeck, 1927), with a basically nonlaminated architecture; the dorsal (Barclay, 1803) division is the cerebral cortex (Bauhin, 1605). The general outlines of the cerebral nuclei were described for macrodissected adult humans by Bartholin (1651; see English translation 1662, p. 141), and a basic distinction during embryogenesis between cerebral cortex and cerebral nuclei was stressed by Baer (1837) and Reichert (1859-1861). The most common synonym today for cerebral nuclei, which was clearly defined by Swanson (2000, p. 117; 2004, pp. 166-170), is basal ganglia (Warwick & Williams, 1973); also see ganglion (Galen, c173). Other synonyms include corpus striatum (Willis, 1664), cerebral ganglia (Reil, 1809), and basal nuclei (Warwick & Williams, 1973). Cerebral nuclei (Swanson, 2000) is preferred to the synonym basal nuclei (Warwick & Williams, 1973) because it pairs naturally with cerebral cortex (Bauhin, 1605). more details

Cerebral peduncle ( cpd ; Tarin, 1753 ) : The large compact white matter tract of macrodissected adult mammals descending laterally (Barclay, 1803) and ventrally (Schulze, 1893) in the interbrain (Baer, 1837) and tegmentum (Swanson, 2000) of the midbrain (Baer, 1837), as a continuation of the internal capsule (Burdach, 1822). It was clearly illustrated for macrodissected adult humans by Casserio (1609, pp. 123-124, Tab. VII, Fig. 2-C) and Tarin (1753, p. 25) gave its current name, which was followed by Burdach (1822, p. 99; in Latin, "crus cerebri"). more details

Cerebral peduncle ( Vicq d'Azyr, 1784 ) : Synonym for macrodissected adult human tegmentum (Swanson, 2000); pp. 555-556. Later used thus by for example His (1893b, p. 178), Herrick (1915, p. 160), Strong & Elwyn (1943, p. 17), Carpenter (1976, p. 367), Williams & Warwick (1980, p. 935). more details

Cerebral ventricles : Synonym for ventricles (Hippocrates). more details

Cerebrospinal axis ( CSA ; Meckel, 1817 ) : In popular usage it is a topographic division that corresponds to the vertebrate central nervous system (Meckel, 1817), although in fact it applies more generally to the chordate central nervous system (Meckel, 1817), a hollow tubular division of the nervous system (Monro, 1783) that lies in the median plane (Henle, 1855), dorsal (Barclay, 1803) to a notochord and flanked by a bilateral (Aristotle) series of segmental muscles (Nieuwenhuys, 2002). Since Classical Antiquity at least six fundamentally different ways to divide the cerebrospinal axis have been used, although today there is rather broad consensus about a set of major topographic divisions of cerebrospinal axis. The set of divisions is arranged in a hierarchical parceling scheme that is based primarily on structural differentiation of the neural tube (Baer, 1837) and its end product is adult macrostructure or gross anatomy (Swanson, 2000). The term cerebrospinal axis was introduced by Meckel (1817; see English translation, 1832, vol. 2, p. 410) for macrodissected adult humans although the feature itself was known to Herophilus (335-280 BC; see von Staden, 1989, p. 159). more details

Cerebrum ( Obersteiner & Hill, 1900 ) : Synonym for endbrain (Kuhlenbeck, 1927). It was used in this way by for example Obersteiner & Hill (1900, pp. xv, 47), Crosby et al. (1962, p. 356), Williams & Warwick (1980, p. 864), Nauta & Feirtag (1986, p. 43), and Nieuwenhuys et al. 2008, p. 5, Fig. 1.2), but has also been defined in many other ways. Curiously, in English, the Greek (encephalon) and Latin (cerebrum) forms of "brain" are not synonymous (see Oxford English Dictionary, 1989). This goes back to Aristotle, who distinguished a large brain (cerebrum) and small brain (cerebellum, the diminutive of cerebrum); see Swanson (2000) and His (1895, p. 162). more details

Cerebrum ( Varolio, 1573 ) : Synonymous with forebrain (Goette, 1873); see Clarke & O'Malley (1996, pp. 635, 881-882). more details

Cerebrum ( Vesalius, 1543 ) : Synonymous with forebrain (Goette, 1873) together with midbrain (Baer, 1837); see Singer translation (1952, pp. 36, 46-47). Also see His (1895, p. 162). more details

Chain : The sequence or series of connections between an arbitrary set of nodes. There are open chains and closed chains; synonyms for the latter are circuit, loop, and cycle. Chain is a traditional term to describe neural network organization and has been widely used in this sense at least since Foster & Sherrington (1897, p. 979), Barker (1899, pp. 313-320), Schäfer (1900, vol. 2, p. 608). more details

Chemical synapse : A synapse (Foster & Sherrington, 1897) using only neurotransmitters for communicating between the presynaptic compartment (De Camilli et al., 2001) and postsynaptic compartment (De Camilli et al., 2001); see Cowan et al. (2001). more details

Circuit : Synonym for closed chain. Generally, a circuit is a closed path that begins and ends in the same place (Oxford English Dictionary, 1989). In graph theory it is also called a cycle. more details

Circuitry : A vague term referring to all or part of the connectome or complete wiring diagram; it should be avoided, see circuit. more details

Circular cord : Synonym for circumoral nerve ring; see Bullock & Horridge (1965, p. 12). more details

Circumenteric nerve ring : Regarded as the central nervous system (Meckel, 1817) of Nematodes and Priapulids; see Bullock & Horridge (1965, pp. 605, 658). more details

Circumoral nerve ring : The nerve ring in adult Echinoderms, where there is no convincing evidence that the nervous system (Monro, 1783), which is a nerve net, is divided into central nervous system (Meckel, 1817) and peripheral nervous system (Meckel, 1817); see Bullock & Horridge (1965, p. 1525), Cobb (1995, p. 411). There is also a circumoral nerve ring with a ganglion (Galen, c173) in Phoronida; see Bullock & Horridge (1965, p. 641). more details

Closed chain ( Swanson & Bota, 2010 ) : A series of connections in a topological circle; that is, one can start at any node and follow connections back to the same node; synonyms include circuit, loop, and cycle. more details

Collateral ( Waldeyer, 1891 ) : Short form of axon collateral (Cajal, 1899); name provided by Waldeyer (1891; see Shepherd, 1991, p. 36). more details

Commissure : When a white matter tract crosses the median plane (Henle, 1855) in animals with bilateral symmetry and then assumes a transverse course, the crossing segment is called a commissure. Generally, a commissure forms connections between the same or nearby gray matter regions on the right and left sides. The term was used in this sense as long ago as Willis (1664, see translation by Pordage, 1681, p. 159). Also see Nauta & Feirtag (1986, p. 82, note). more details

Communicating branch ( cbr ; Winslow, 1733 ) : A general term for a short white matter tract between two nerve cords, two nerves (Herophilus, c335-280 BC), two ganglia (Galen, c173), or a ganglion and a nerve. Galen (c180; see translation by Goss, 1966, p. 330) referred to communications between nerves and Winslow (1733, Sect. VI) frequently used the term communicating branch in describing macrodissected adult human nerves. more details

Connection ( Bota et al. 2003 ) : The overall structural link between two nodes in the wiring diagram of the nervous system (Monro, 1783); synonyms include structural connection and projection. The nodes may be described at three successively greater levels of resolution and accuracy. For a macroconnection (Thompson & Swanson, 2010) the two nodes are gray matter regions, for a mesoconnection (Thompson & Swanson, 2010) the nodes are neuron types (Bota & Swanson, 2007), and for a microconnection (Thompson & Swanson, 2010) the nodes are individual neurons (Waldeyer, 1891). A node can establish one or more connections that are either an intranodal connection(s) or an internodal connection(s). An axon connection is unidirectional, whereas an amacrine connection (amacrine extension connection) is bidirectional. The physical course taken by a connection through gray matter regions and white matter tracts is called its route, and route information is part of the description of a connection. Information about a set of connections can be arranged in a number of different ways like a wiring diagram, connectome, or basic plan. A closely related concept is pathway-the part of a connection demonstrated in a particular experimental analysis; another related term is functional connection. "Connections" between parts of the vertebrate brain (Cuvier, 1800) were described at least as early as Gordon (1817, p. 134); for its use as defined here see Bota et al. (2003, p. 795). Also see connections. more details

Connections ( Swanson & Bota, 2010 ) : The total input-output relationships of a node or set of nodes, in contrast to an individual connection. more details

Connectome ( Bota and Swanson, 2010 ) : For the Foundational Model of Connectivity, the complete structural connection matrix of nodes forming the nervous system (Monro, 1783) of a particular animal species, or in a more limited sense the complete input/output connection matrix of a particular node; also see connectome (Sporns et al., 2005). more details

Connectome ( Sporns et al., 2005 ) : A "connection matrix of the human brain … a comprehensive structural description of the network of elements and connections forming the human brain"; p. 245. more details

Contralateral : On the opposite side of the body in an animal with bilateral symmetry; see Standring (2008, p. xxii). more details

Coronal plane ( Barclay, 1803 ) : Synonym for frontal plane (Henle, 1855), named for the human coronal suture, named in turn for the crown of the human head; p. 145. It is commonly used thus in human and other primate anatomy; see Standring (2008, Fig. 1). It is often confusingly used in quadrupeds for transverse plane (Henle, 1855); see coronal plane (Paxinos & Watson, 1982). more details

Coronal plane ( Paxinos & Watson, 1982 ) : Synonym for transverse plane (Henle, 1855); p. 2. Used occasionally in comparative anatomy, probably before Paxinos & Watson (1982). Also see coronal plane (Barclay, 1803). more details

Corpora quadrigemina ( Winslow, 1733 ) : Synonym for macrodissected adult human tectum (Schwalbe, 1881); Sect. X, p. 37. Quadrigeminal body in English. more details

Corpus striatum ( Willis, 1664 ) : Basically synonymous with cerebral nuclei (Swanson, 2000) as Willis defined the term for macrodissected large mammals including humans; pp. 62-63, 101-102, Tab. VIII-A. Striate body in English. more details

Cranial nerve ganglia ( GCR ) : The topographic division consisting of sensory ganglia (Galen, c173) associated with the cranial nerves (Longet, 1842), in contrast to the autonomic ganglia (Langley, 1900) associated with the cranial nerves (Longet, 1842); see International Anatomical Nomenclature Committee (1983; p. A73), Federative Committee on Anatomical Terminology (1998, p. 132). more details

Cranial nerves ( cran ; Longet, 1842 ) : The topographic division of vertebrate craniospinal nerves (Herrick, 1915) that exit the cranium despite their origin; for example the spinal root of accessory nerve, which is motor in function, arises from the ventral horn of the spinal cord (Galen, c162-c166) but exits the cranium with the vagus nerve (Galen, c192 AD), another cranial nerve. Most of them were known to Herophilus (335-280 BC), the founder of human anatomy (see Solmsen, 1961; von Staden, 1989), and the term itself was first used for macrodissected animals except humans by Galen in the second century, although not in the currently accepted sense; see translations by Duckworth (1962, pp. 181-222) and May (1968, pp. 31-32, 438-454). The traditional division into 12 cranial nerves is based on the work of Soemmerring (1778, pp. 173-180), who later called them cerebral nerves (Soemmerring, 1791, sections 128, 203-272); they were finally called the 12 cranial nerves by Longet (1842, vol. 2, p. 1). more details

Craniospinal ganglia ( GCS ) : A topographic division of vertebrate peripheral ganglia that includes cranial nerve ganglia and spinal nerve ganglia (Burdach, 1819) considered together, all of which are sensory in function and contrasted with the autonomic ganglia (Langley, 1900). The history of their discovery is complex, beginning with the discovery of spinal nerve ganglia by Coiter (1572, see 1995 translation p. 115). Also see International Anatomical Nomenclature Committee (1983; p. A73), Federative Committee on Anatomical Terminology (1998, p. 132). more details

Craniospinal nerves ( CSN ; Herrick, 1915 ) : A topographic division of vertebrate nerves (Herophilus, c335-280 BC) consisting of the 12 traditional pairs of cranial nerves (Longet, 1842) and the variable number in different species of pairs of spinal nerves (Camper, 1760) considered together, and distinguished from the autonomic nerves (Langley, 1898). Most craniospinal nerves were known to Herophilus (335-280 BC), the founder of human anatomy (see Solmsen, 1961; von Staden, 1989), and the term itself was used by Herrick (1915, p. 223), and later by others including Williams & Warwick (1980, p. 1052). more details

Cycle : In graph theory a synonym for closed chain or circuit. more details

Decussation : When a white matter tract crosses the median plane (Henle, 1855) in animals with bilateral symmetry and then assumes a longitudinal course, the crossing segment is called a decussation. The term was used in this sense at least as long ago as Collins (1685, p. 1045). Also see Nauta & Feirtag (1986, p. 82, note). more details

Deep ( Galen, c173 ) : A relationship between adjacent objects in the body; an object is deep to another when it is closer to the center; the opposite of superficial. The dichotomy has been used at least since the second century by Galen; see translation by May (1968, pp. 701, 715), also see Standring (2008, p. xxii). more details

Dendrite ( His, 1889 ) : A neuron extension that in a chain normally conducts information toward the cell body (Deiters, 1865) and/or axon (Kölliker, 1896). Most vertebrate neurons (Waldeyer, 1891) have multiple dendrites extending from the cell body whereas most invertebrate neurons have multiple dendrites extending from the axon. Dendrites were first detected by Valentin (1836; see Van der Loos, 1967, p. 26), the axon was first distinguished clearly from dendrites by Wagner (1846, see Tab. 3, Fig. 43-a; see Van der Loos, 1967, p. 37), and the dendrite was named thus by His (1889, p. 363). For vertebrates they typically branch at acute angles whereas axons branch at approximately right angles (Golgi, 1873). more details

Dendritic spine ( Cajal, 1899 ) : A short thin extension from a dendrite (His, 1889) that typically comes off at roughly a right angle. The extension may or may not have a swelling on the end; when it does, the swelling (spine head) is typically postsynaptic. They were discovered and named spines by Cajal (1888, p. 4, "espinas" in Spanish) and named dendritic spines by Cajal (1899-1904, vol. 1, Fig 14); also see Peters et al. (1991, p. 92), Alvarez & Sabatini (2007). more details

Diencephalon ( Sharpey et al., 1867 ) : Original Latin form of interbrain (Baer, 1837); p. 577. more details

Diffuse nerve net : Synonym for nerve net, though it usually implies a relative lack of marginal ganglia and nerve rings; see Bullock & Horridge (1965, p. 463). more details

Distal ( Barclay, 1803 ) : Toward the end of an object like a tentacle, limb, or nerve; opposite of proximal (Barclay, 1803). Introduced by Barclay (1803, pp. 124-125, 164), also see Standring (2008, p. xxii). more details

Division : Shortened form of topographic division. more details

Dorsal ( Barclay, 1803 ) : Toward the back of the body, or away from the belly, in the transverse plane (Henle, 1855); the opposite of ventral (Schulze, 1893); introduced formally by Barclay (1803, pp. 120, 162), who paired it with sternal. At least by the second century Galen had indicated its use, for example, in describing a direction "back toward the dorsum"; see translation by May (1968, p. 701). In Aristotle's De Partibus Animalium, there is reference to "on their [univalves] dorsal surface they have a shell"; see translation by Ogle (1912; 679b, 23-24). Also see Brusca & Brusca (1990, p. 46). more details

Dorsoventral axis : In animals with bilateral symmetry an axis orthogonal to the rostrocaudal axis that lies in the median plane (Henle, 1855); see Kuhlenbeck (1973, p. 112 and Fig. 34C-ZZ). more details

Dura ( D ; Galen, c177 ) : The outermost, toughest, and most fibrous of the three meninges (Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus, c1700 BC); see Dorland's (2003). It was known to Hippocrates in Places in Man and Fleshes (see translation by Potter, 1995, pp. 23, 155, respectively) and named such by Galen (c177; see translation by Wiberg, 1914, p. 21). more details

Dura mater ( Ali ibn' ul-Abbas, d994 ) : Synonym for dura (Galen, c177); for naming see translation by Wiberg (1914, p. 86). more details

Effector ( Sherrington, 1906 ) : A non-neuronal cell (Hooke, 1665) receiving input from a neuron (Waldeyer, 1891) and producing a response like contraction or secretion; pp. 6-7, 309. more details

Efferent : Generally, a connection or pathway from a node. 1. The terms afferent and efferent were first used by Unzer (1771; see English translation, 1851, pp. 69, 254) to indicate toward or away from, respectively, the central nervous system (Meckel, 1817) or, conversely, away from or toward the non-neuronal tissues of the body; see Sherrington (1900, p. 784), Clarke & O'Malley (1996, p. 342). These neutral terms avoid functional implications that may or may not be valid; for example, afferent information may not be sensory if it does not reach the level of consciousness. 2. A connection or projection from a gray matter region, neuron type (Bota & Swanson, 2007), neuron (Waldeyer, 1891), or site. The preferred synonym is output. more details

Electrical synapse : A synapse (Foster & Sherrington, 1897) based strictly on the flow of ions, rather than neurotransmitters; see Peters et al. (1991, pp. 203-207), Bennett (2000). more details

Electrotonic synapse : Synonym for electrical synapse; see Peters et al. (1991, pp. 203-210). more details

Encephalon ( Homer, c9th century BC ) : Synonym for vertebrate brain (Cuvier, 1800). Homer (c9th century BC) used this Greek term in referring to the marrow within the skull or head; see Longrigg (1998, p. 168) and Rocca (2003, pp. xvii, 21). more details

End bulb ( Held, 1897 ) : Synonym for axon terminal (Barker, 1899); named by Held (1897). more details

Endbrain ( EB ; Kuhlenbeck, 1927 ) : The rostral (Schulze, 1893) and dorsal (Barclay, 1803) topographic division of the forebrain (Goette, 1873); the caudal (Cleland, 1879) and ventral (Schulze, 1893) division is the interbrain (Baer, 1837). This basic division of the macrodissected adult human brain (Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus, c1700 BC) has been recognized at least since Mondino (1316), see translation by Singer (1925, vol. 1, p. 92), and was named thus by Kuhlenbeck (1927, chs. 3, 10). This English form of telencephalon (Kuhlenbeck, 1927) has been used routinely, for example by Herrick (1915, p. 121), Clark (1951, p. 854), Williams & Warwick (1980, p. 982), and Nauta & Fiertag (1986, p. 39). Synonyms include secondary forebrain (Sharpey et al., 1867), telencephalon (Kuhlenbeck, 1927), cerebrum (Obersteiner & Hill, 1900), cerebral hemispheres (Tiedemann, 1826). more details

Epencephalon ( Mihalkovics, 1877 ) : Synonym for afterbrain (Baer, 1837), that is, the medulla (Winslow, 1833); p. 25. more details

Epencephalon ( Owen, 1868 ) : Synonym for macrodissected adult vertebrate rhombicbrain (His, 1893b); p. 79. more details

Epencephalon ( Sharpey et al., 1867 ) : Original Latin form of hindbrain (Baer, 1837); p. 577. more details

Ephapse : Although sometimes used to mean electrical synapse, it has many connotations and should be avoided without careful definition; see Bennett (2000, p. 17). more details

External : Synonym for outer (Galen, c173). The term was used by Aristotle in De Partibus Animalium; see translation by Ogle (1912, e.g., 685b-25), also see Barclay (1803, p. 116), Standring (2008, p. xxii). more details

Extrinsic connection : Often a synonym for interregional connection, though its meaning can be vague and its use is thus discouraged. more details

Extrinsic pathway : Often a synonym for interregional pathway, though its meaning can be vague and its use is thus discouraged. more details

Fiber-of-passage ( Cajal, 1894a ) : Segment of a nerve fiber (Ehrenberg, 1833) that passes through a gray matter region or a white matter tract without forming synapses (Foster & Sherrington, 1897); used by Cajal at least as early as 1894 (1894a, p. 173). Also see axon-of-passage and Cowan et al. (1972, p. 38). more details

Forebrain ( Baer, 1837 ) : Synonym for adult vertebrate endbrain (Kuhlenbeck, 1927); in the original German, "Vorderhirn"; p. 107. For later use see Ariëns Kappers (1929, Figs. 44, 45), Papez (1929, Ch. 40). more details

Forebrain ( FB ; Goette, 1873 ) : The most rostral (Schulze, 1893) of the three primary brain vesicles of the vertebrate neural tube (Baer, 1837) that divides and develops into the adult endbrain (Kuhlenbeck, 1927) and interbrain (Baer, 1837). The adult forebrain is a topographic division lying rostral to the midbrain (Baer, 1837) that was identified by Varolio (1573), who called it the cerebrum in macrodissected humans, see Clarke & O'Malley (1996, pp. 635, 881-882). The primary forebrain vesicle was identified and named such for the embryonic vertebrate neural tube by Baer (1837, p. 106; "vordere Hirnbläschen" in German), and the corresponding part in adults was named by Goette in toads (1873, p. 400). A current synonym is the Latin prosencephalon (Mihalkovics, 1877). more details

Foundational Model of Connectivity ( FMC ; Bota & Swanson, 2010 ) : Abbreviated form of "Foundational Model of Structural Connectivity in the Nervous System". The term is derived from Foundational Model of Anatomy (FMA); see Brinkley (1991). more details

Fourth ventricle ( V4 ; Galen, c177 ) : The rhombic-shaped part of the ventricles (Hippocrates) in the rhombicbrain (His, 1893b), continuous rostrally (Schulze, 1893) with the cerebral aqueduct (His, 1895) and caudally (Cleland, 1879) with the central canal (Henle, 1871). The cerebrospinal fluid in the fourth ventricle communicates with cerebrospinal fluid in the subarachnoid space (Magendie, 1827) through one or more holes in the roof of the fourth ventricle. The fourth ventricle was known from macrodissected adult humans to Herophilus (335-280 BC; see von Staden, 1989, pp. 247-248), and named such by Galen (c177, c192; see translations by Duckworth, 1962, p. 19 and Singer, 1999, p. 235, respectively). more details

Frontal plane ( Henle, 1855 ) : In animals with bilateral symmetry, the plane of section that is parallel to the longitudinal axis (Barclay, 1803) and passes medial (Schulze, 1893)-lateral (Barclay, 1803), orthogonal to the other longitudinal plane, the sagittal plane (Henle, 1855); divides the body into dorsal (Barclay, 1803) and ventral (Schulze, 1893) parts. The term was introduced by Henle (1855, p. 1); also see Kuhlenbeck (1973, p. 114), Brusca & Brusca (1990, Fig. 4-A), Romer (1962, p. 7), Sandring (2008, p. xxii). In quadrupeds it is often confusingly synonymous with transverse plane (Henle, 1855)-see frontal plane (Horsley & Clarke, 1908)-but it has long been argued that positional terms referring to the horizon or other external landmarks, rather than to internal landmarks, be avoided, especially in comparative anatomy; see Wilder & Gage (1882, pp. 21-23). more details

Frontal plane ( Horsley & Clarke, 1908 ) : A synonym for transverse plane (Henle, 1855), commonly used in comparative anatomy. Horsley & Clarke (1908, p. 52) adopted this terminology for use in a stereotaxic instrument and it was adopted for mammals in general, especially in atlases. Also see frontal plane (Henle, 1855). more details

Functional connection : This term has multiple meanings; originally it referred to the physiology of a connection (structural connection), or the observation that a connection actually works. More recently it is used in functional imaging research to indicate that changes in nervous system (Monro, 1783) activity patterns are correlated in time, without direct evidence for structural connections; see Horwitz (2003). more details

Ganglia ( G ; Galen, c173 ) : A ganglion is a recognizable aggregation of neurons (Waldeyer, 1891). There are marginal ganglia associated with invertebrate nerve nets, central ganglia associated with invertebrate central nerve cords, and peripheral ganglia in the invertebrate and vertebrate peripheral nervous system (Meckel, 1817). For vertebrates it has long been best practice to restrict the term ganglion (and terms derived from ganglion) to structures of the peripheral nervous system (Meckel, 1817). As Herrick wrote, "The term ‘ganglion' is also sometimes used for nuclei or centers within the brain…but this usage is objectionable, for the use of the word ganglion in vertebrate neurology should be restricted to collections of neurons outside the central nervous system, such as the ganglia of the cranial and spinal nerves and the sympathetic [autonomic] ganglia." (1915, p. 108). A prime example is the use of "basal ganglia" for cerebral nuclei (Swanson, 2000). Discovered and named in macrodissected adult mammals by Galen (c173; see translation by May , 1968, pp. 695-696). more details

Ganglionic ring : Synonym for nerve ring; see Bullock & Horridge (1965, p. 13). more details

Glia ( Virchow, 1846 ) : The so-called supporting cells (Hooke, 1665) of the nervous system (Monro, 1783) that are divided into four major embryonic lineages: astrocytes (including ependymal cells), oligodendrocytes, Schwann cells, and microglia. Virchow is usually given credit for discovering and naming glia (1846, pp. 247-248; also see Virchow, 1856). more details

Glial cells : Synonym for glia (Virchow, 1846). more details

Gray matter ( GM ; Meckel, 1817 ) : Since the 16th century the nervous system (Monro, 1783) has been divided more and more precisely into gray matter and white matter (Meckel, 1817) based on their appearance in freshly dissected material observed with the naked eye-topographic macroarchitecture of nervous system; since the 19th century this differentiation has been made at the histological (subsystems microarchitecture of nervous system) level. Gray matter is the nervous system compartment that consists of the cell bodies (Deiters, 1865) of neurons (Waldeyer, 1891); the cytoplasmic neuron extensions: axons (Kölliker, 1896), dendrites (His, 1889), and amacrine extensions; and synapses (Foster & Sherrington, 1897) between the neuron extensions-as well as glia (Virchow, 1846) and parts of the circulatory system: vascular cells. Neuropil (Waldeyer, 1891) refers to the gray matter compartment exclusive of cell bodies and vascular cells (blood vessels) and thus consists of the cytoplasmic extensions of neurons and glia, including synapses. There is often a fuzzy border of variable and difficult to measure width between white matter and gray matter. For early history see Clarke & O'Malley (1996, Ch. 10); for modern histological interpretation see Peters et al. (1991), Swanson (2003, pp. 60-66). The general term "nervous system gray matter" as defined here was probably first used by Meckel for macrodissected adult humans (1817, see English translation, 1832 vol. 2, pp. 152-154, 166-167); also see Herrick (1915, p. 108). more details

Gray matter nucleus : A term applied to many gray matter regions in the cerebrospinal axis (Meckel, 1817), usually though not always (e.g., the human dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus) when they have relatively clear borders and are nonlaminated. The first use of the term in this way was by Ludwig (1779, Fig. 2b, p. 36); the cell nucleus, a cytological feature, was named by Brown (1833, p. 710). more details

Gray matter region : A recognizable volume of gray matter (Meckel, 1817) in the nervous system (Monro, 1783) that is distinguished by a unique set of neuron types (Bota & Swanson, 2007) with a unique spatial distribution. The entire gray matter is regionalized and individual regions may contain white matter (Meckel, 1817), including axons-of-passage, which are axons (Kölliker, 1896) passing through without forming synapses (Foster & Sherrington, 1897). The traditional way to view regionalization is with a Nissl stain, whose interpretation is based on methods that identify neuron types (Bota & Swanson, 2007) and their spatial distribution; see Brodal (1981, p. 4), Swanson (2004, p. 8). Examples of gray matter regions include cerebral cortical areas, thalamic nuclei, and peripheral nervous system ganglia. As a complete set, gray matter regions can be arranged in various different ways, for example, topographic arrangement of gray matter regions and subsystems arrangement of gray matter regions. Older synonyms include gray mass (Meynert 1872, p. 651), gray matter mass (Meynert, 1872, p. 654). more details

Heterogeneous tract : A white matter tract with two or more mesoconnections (Thompson & Swanson, 2010) within it. more details

Hindbrain ( HB ; Baer, 1837 ) : Rostral (Schulze, 1893) half of the primary hindbrain vesicle (Baer, 1837) of the vertebrate neural tube (Baer, 1837) as it develops into the adult cerebellum (Aristotle), which lies dorsally (Barclay, 1803), combined with the pons (Haller, 1747), which lies ventrally (Schulze, 1893); p. 107, in the original German, "hinterhirn". The term for this topographic division has been used in this sense more recently, for example by His (1895, p. 162), Obersteiner & Hill (1900, p. 46). The term is derived from the fact that since the time of Aristotle and Galen the cerebellum, often combined with the pons, was routinely considered the posterior brain, hindbrain, or small brain, whereas in contrast the cerebrum was often considered the anterior brain, forebrain, or large brain; see Swanson (2000). Synonyms include epencephalon (Sharpey et al., 1867), secondary hindbrain (Sharpey et al., 1867), metencephalon (Huxley, 1871). more details

Hindbrain ( Galen, c192 ) : Synonym for cerebellum (Aristotle); see translation by Duckworth (1962, p. 18). more details

Hindbrain ( Huxley, 1871 ) : Synonym for macrodissected adult human rhombicbrain (His, 1893b); p. 58. Used thus recently by for example Carpenter (1976, p. 58), Nauta & Feirtag (1986, p. 38), Williams et al. (1989, p. 949), Nieuwenhuys et al. (2008, p. 1). more details

Homogeneous tract : A white matter tract with a single mesoconnection (Thompson & Swanson, 2010) within it. more details

Horizontal plane ( Henle, 1855 ) : Synonym for transverse plane (Henle, 1855); introduced by Henle (1855, p. 1), see Standring (2008, Fig. 1). It is often confusingly used in quadrupeds for frontal plane (Henle, 1855); see horizontal plane (Horsley & Clarke, 1908). more details

Horizontal plane ( Horsley & Clarke, 1908 ) : A synonym for frontal plane (Henle, 1855), commonly used in comparative anatomy. Horsley & Clarke (1908, p. 52) adopted this terminology for use in a stereotaxic instrument and it was adopted for mammals in general, especially in atlases. Also see horizontal plane (Henle, 1855). more details

Hypencephalon ( Kupffer, 1893 ) : Synonym for hypothalamus (Kuhlenbeck, 1927) for anamniote embryos; in German, "unterhirn", pp. 51, 94 and Figs. E,F-17-19; also see His (1893b, Fig. 1-H) for human embryo. more details

Hypothalamus ( His, 1893a ) : His introduced the term hypothalamus here, but included the preoptic region (Swanson, 1976b, pp. 229-235) of the hypothalamus (Kuhlenbeck, 1927) in the telencephalon (His, 1893b); pp. 159-162. more details

Hypothalamus ( His, 1893b ) : By this definition the preoptic region (Swanson, 1976b, pp. 229-235) of the hypothalamus (Kuhlenbeck, 1927) and pars optica hypothalami (His, 1893b) are within the telencephalon (His, 1893b); also see His (1895, Figs. 17-20). more details

Hypothalamus ( HY ; Kuhlenbeck, 1927 ) : The ventral (Schulze, 1893) topographic division of the interbrain (Baer, 1837): the dorsal (Barclay, 1803) topographic division is the thalamus (His, 1893a). The first adequate description of the hypothalamus as a layer of gray matter surrounding the lower half of the third ventricle (Galen, c173) was provided by Wharton (1656, see 1966 translation, p. 170); His (1893a, pp. 159-162) introduced the term but assigned the preoptic region (Swanson, 1976b, pp. 229-235) of the hypothalamus (Kuhlenbeck, 1927) to the telencephalon (His, 1893b). The definition here was introduced for vertebrates by Kuhlenbeck (1927, p. 67, Ch. 9); also see Christ (1969, p. 23), Nauta & Haymaker (1969, Tab. 4-1). more details

Independent efffector ( Parker, 1909 ) : A non-neuronal cell (Hooke, 1665) producing a response like contraction or secretion without input from a neuron (Waldeyer, 1891); p. 56. See effector (Sherrington, 1906). more details

Inferior ( Vicq d'Azyr, 1786 ) : He defined it as below, or toward the plane on which the body is supported; pp. 51, 87; also see Standring (2008, p. xxii) and posterior (Aristotle). more details

Initial segment ( Palay, 1964 ) : Typically the narrowest segment of the axon trunk, just distal (Barclay, 1803) to the axon hillock (Schaffer, 1893), where action potentials are typically generated; p. 86; term also used by Herndon (1963, p. 170). Also see Palay et al. (1968) and Strong & Elwyn (1925, Fig. 136). more details

Inner ( Galen, c173 ) : Closer to the center of an object in the body; the opposite of outer; see Standring (2008, p. xxii). The dichotomy was used at least as far back as Galen in the second century; see, for example, translations by May (1968, pp. 711, 377) and Singer (1999, p. 131). Aristotle wrote in De Partibus Animalium of parts within the body and those placed on the outside; see translation by Ogle (1912, 674, 5-6). more details

Input : A connection to a neuron (Waldeyer, 1891), neuron type (Bota & Swanson, 2007), or gray matter region from another neuron, neuron type, or gray matter region. All such nodes can and generally do have multiple inputs. more details

Interbrain ( IB ; Baer, 1837 ) : The caudal (Cleland, 1879) and ventral (Schulze, 1893) topographic division of the forebrain (Goette, 1873); the rostral (Schulze, 1893) and dorsal (Barclay, 1803) division is the endbrain (Kuhlenbeck, 1927). The interbrain in turn has two great topographic divisions, dorsally (Barclay, 1803) the thalamus (His, 1893a) and ventrally (Schulze, 1893) the hypothalamus (Kuhlenbeck, 1927). This basic division of the macrodissected adult human brain (Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus, c1700 BC) has been recognized at least since Varolio (1573, p. 13, his "pars posterior medullae spinalis"), and it received its current name for vertebrates from Baer (1837, p. 107; in the original German, "Zwischenhirn"). This English form of diencephalon (Sharpey et al., 1867) has been used routinely, for example by Sharpey et al. (1867, p. 577), Johnston (1906, p. 25), Strong & Elwyn (1943, p. 12), and Williams & Warwick (1980, p. 953). more details

Internal : Synonym for inner (Galen, c173). The term was used by Aristotle in De Partibus Animalium; see translation by Ogle (1912, e.g., 685b-25); also see Barclay (1803, p. 116), Standring (2008, p. xxii). more details

Internodal connection : A connection between two nodes. more details

Interregional connection : A connection between two gray matter regions, as compared to an intraregional connection, which remains within a single gray matter region. It can be an interregional macroconnection, mesoconnection, or microconnection. more details

Interregional pathway : A pathway between two gray matter regions, as compared to an intraregional pathway, which remains within a single gray matter region. It can be an interregional macropathway, mesopathway, or micropathway. more details

Intranodal connection : For macroconnections (Thompson & Swanson, 2010) an intraregional connection, for mesoconnections (Thompson & Swanson, 2010) a connection that feeds back onto the neuron type (Bota & Swanson, 2007) that generates it (a connection from neuron type z to neuron type z), and for microconnections (Thompson & Swanson, 2010) a connection that feeds back onto the neuron (Waldeyer, 1891) that generates it (a connection from neuron z to neuron z). more details

Intranodal pathway : For macropathways an intraregional pathway, for mesopathways a pathway that feeds back onto the neuron type (Bota & Swanson, 2007) that generates it (a pathway from neuron type z to neuron type z), and for micropathways a pathway that feeds back onto the neuron (Waldeyer, 1891) that generates it (a connection from neuron z to neuron z). more details

Intraregional connection : A connection that arises and terminates within a particular gray matter region, as compared to an interregional connection, which extends between two gray matter regions. It can be an intraregional mesoconnection or microconnection. more details

Intraregional pathway : A pathway that arises and terminates within a particular gray matter region, as compared to an interregional pathway, which extends between two gray matter regions. It can be an intraregional mesopathway or micropathway. more details

Intrinsic connection : Often a synonym for intraregional connection, though its meaning can be vague and its use is thus discouraged. more details

Intrinsic pathway : Often a synonym for intraregional pathway, though its meaning can be vague and its use is thus discouraged. more details

Invertebrate brain ( BRi ) : The most rostral (Schulze, 1893), largest, most differentiated central ganglion of a central nerve cord (or ganglia if multiple cords are involved); see Bullock & Horridge (1965, pp. 542-550). Cuvier (1800, lecture 11) explicitly discussed invertebrates and their brains without using the term itself. more details

Invertebrate nerves : Nerves (Herophilus, c335-280 BC) of the invertebrate peripheral nervous system (Meckel, 1817); see Bullock & Horridge (1965). more details

Invertebrate peripheral ganglia : Ganglia (Galen, c173) of the invertebrate peripheral nervous system (Meckel, 1817); see Bullock & Horridge (1965). more details

Ipsilateral : On the same side of the body in an animal with bilateral symmetry; see Standring (2008, p. xxii). more details

Lateral ( Barclay, 1803 ) : Away from the median plane (Henle, 1855) of the body, in the frontal plane (Henle, 1855); the opposite of medial (Schulze, 1893). Use of the term seems to go at least as far back as the second century and Galen (see, for example, translation by May, 1968, p. 701), but its formal use was introduced by Barclay (1803, pp. 121, 163), who paired it with mesial. Also see Brusca & Brusca (1990, Fig. 4-A). more details

Lateral ventricles ( VL ; Vesalius, 1543 ) : The part of the ventricles (Hippocrates) in the right and left endbrain (Kuhlenbeck, 1927); they communicate with the unitary third ventricle (Galen, c173) through the interventricular foramina (one for each lateral ventricle). They correspond to the first and second ventricles, were known in macrodissected adult humans to Erasistratus (c310-c250 BC; see Clarke & O'Malley, 1996, p. 12), and were named such by Vesalius (1543; see translation by Singer, 1952, pp. 41, 68). more details

Leptomeninges : The pia (Galen, c192) and arachnoid (Blasius, 1666) considered together; see Standring (2008, p. 389). more details

Local connection : Often a synonym for intraregional connection, though its meaning can be vague and its use is thus discouraged. more details

Local tract : A white matter tract having a short course entirely within a gray matter region. more details

Longitudinal axis ( Barclay, 1803 ) : The oral-aboral axis (Schulze, 1893) of the body in all animals with a nervous system (Monro, 1783); term probably introduced by Barclay (1803, p. 117); also see Henle (1855, p. 1), Willmer (1990, p. 15). Other synonyms include rostrocaudal axis, central axis, long axis, midsagittal axis, principal axis, and anteroposterior axis, the latter being discouraged as especially ambiguous in comparative anatomy. The longitudinal axis is orthogonal to the transverse axis (Henle, 1855). The concept was clearly described by Aristotle in De Partibus Animalium, where he wrote that "a straight line as an axis has at the upper end the mouth, followed by the gullet, stomach, intestine, and excremental vent"; and that furthermore in some animals like humans, quadrupeds, crustacea, and insects the axis is essentially straight, whereas at the other extreme in animals like the Cephalopods it can be highly curved and thus U-shaped; see translation by Ogle (1912, 685a-686b). Kuhlenbeck (1973, p. 111) provided a nice modern statement of the concept: "Three so-called "axial lines" [longitudinal or rostrocaudal, dorsoventral, and mediolateral] which can be conceived as geodesics and therefore not necessarily ‘straight', provides an essentially nonmetric and non-Euclidean (Euclidoid), ameboid three-dimensional coordinate system (German: "Bezungsmollusk") of anatomical space…" more details

Longitudinal plane ( Henle, 1855 ) : A plane of section passing through the longitudinal axis (Barclay, 1803) in animals with radial symmetry, dividing the body into roughly equal longitudinal halves; term alluded to by Henle (1855, p. 1). In animals with bilateral symmetry there are two orthogonal longitudinal planes, the sagittal plane (Henle, 1855) and frontal plane (Henle, 1855). A synonym is rostrocaudal plane. more details

Longitudinal tract : A white matter tract coursing essentially along the longitudinal axis (Barclay, 1803) of the nervous system (Monro, 1783); if a longitudinal tract crosses the median plane (Henle, 1855) in an animal with bilateral symmetry, the segment related to that plane is a decussation. The basically transverse and longitudinal organization of nervous system tracts was emphasized early on by Spencer (1881) and Cajal (1899-1904, vol. 1, p. 12), and more recently in the orthogon theory of Reisinger (1925, 1972). more details

Loop : Typically and logically it is synonymous with closed chain. more details

Macroconnection ( Thompson & Swanson, 2010 ) : A connection between two gray matter regions; p. 15239. At this level of analysis gray matter regions are treated as black box nodes, disregarding their composition of neuron types (Bota & Swanson, 2007) and local connections. That is, macroconnections are described to and from particular gray matter regions, disregarding local connections within the gray matter regions. In normal, healthy animals global macroconnection patterns are genetically hardwired. more details

Macropathway : A pathway between two gray matter regions. more details

Marginal ganglion : A topographic division with a small condensation of neurons (Waldeyer, 1891), outside of a nerve ring, in a nerve net of at least some active Coelenterate medusae, Ctenophora, and Echinoderms; see Bullock & Horridge (1965, Ch. 8), Cobb (1995). more details

Medial ( Schulze, 1893 ) : Toward the median plane (Henle, 1855) of the body, in the frontal plane (Henle, 1855); the opposite of lateral (Barclay, 1803); used thus by Schulze (1893, p. 6). Also see Brusca & Brusca (1990, p. 46). more details

Median plane ( Henle, 1855 ) : The sagittal plane (Henle, 1855) dividing a body into roughly equal right and left halves; term introduced by Henle (1855, p. 1); also see Standring (2008, Fig. 1). Synonyms include midline and midsagittal plane. more details

Mediolateral axis : In animals with bilateral symmetry an axis orthogonal to the rostrocaudal axis that lies in the frontal plane (Henle, 1855). It is unusual in having a right and left half reflected across the median plane (Henle, 1855); that is, for the right and left sides of the body, medial (Schulze, 1893) is toward the median plane and lateral (Barclay, 1803) is toward the right or left edge of the body. A synonym is right-left axis; see Kuhlenbeck (1973, p. 112). more details

Medulla ( MY ; Winslow, 1733 ) : The topographic division of the cerebrospinal axis (Meckel, 1817) between pons (Haller, 1747) and spinal cord (Galen, c162-c166). It was clearly described and illustrated for macrodissected adult humans by Piccolomini (1586, pp. 265, 269; his intracranial medulla oblongata), while the term medulla was used by Winslow (1733, Sect. X, p. 42) and Haller (1747, see translation by Mihles, 1754, pp. 287, 286), and more recently in the classic textbooks of for example Mettler (1948, p. 76) and Carpenter (1976, p. 60). Synonyms include medulla oblongata (Bartholin, 1651), spinal bulb (Chaussier, 1807), bulb (Chaussier, 1807), afterbrain (Baer, 1837), metencephalon (Sharpey et al., 1867), myelencephalon (Huxley, 1871), epencephalon (Mihailkovics, 1877). more details

Medulla oblongata ( Bartholin, 1651 ) : Synonym for medulla (Winslow, 1733); probably introduced by Bartholin (1651, p. 317) and clearly used thus by Collins (1685, Tab. 48-M). more details

Medulla spinalis ( Hippocrates ) : Latin form of spinal cord (Galen, c162-c166), introduced (in Greek) by Hippocrates in On the Sacred Disease and Fleshes, see translations by Adams (1972, pp. 234, 309) and Potter (1995, p. 139), respectively, and May (1968, p. 575). more details

Meninges ( MEN ; Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus, c1700 BC ) : The connective tissue coverings of the nervous system (Monro, 1783) that in mammals are divided concentrically from outside to inside into dura (Galen, c177), arachnoid (Blasius, 1666), and pia (Galen, c192), which often extends along blood vessels into the central nervous system (Meckel, 1817). A term equivalent to the Greek "meninx"-membrane, in the present context a fibrous membrane around the brain (Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus, c1700 BC)-was used to describe a human head wound in the Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus, a c1700 BC copy of a manuscript composed c3200 BC; see Breasted (1930, pp. 65, 167, 171-172), Clarke & O'Malley (1996, p. 384), Allen (2005, p. 75). more details

Mesencephalon ( Sharpey et al., 1867 ) : Latin form of midbrain (Baer, 1837); it was introduced for macrodissected adult humans by Sharpey et al. (1867, p. 577), who also introduced the English, "midbrain". more details

Mesoconnection ( Thompson & Swanson, 2010 ) : A connection between two neuron types (Bota & Swanson, 2007), or between a neuron type (Bota & Swanson, 2007) and another cell type like muscle or gland cells; p. 15239. At this level of analysis all axon connections from (outputs of) a particular neuron type (Bota & Swanson, 2007) are arranged in terms of a stereotyped collateralization (branching) pattern of the axon trunks of the neuron type (Bota & Swanson, 2007), with individual axon collaterals innervating specific neuron types (Bota & Swanson, 2007)-the individual axon connections of the neuron type. At this level of analysis mesoconnections are established by synapses (Foster & Sherrington, 1897). In normal, healthy animals global mesoconnection patterns are genetically hardwired. more details

Mesopathway : A pathway between two neuron types (Bota & Swanson, 2007). more details

Metencephalon ( Huxley, 1871 ) : Synonym for epencephalon (Sharpey et al., 1867) and thus hindbrain (Baer, 1837); p. 60. Wilder (1899, p. 573) regarded the shifting of afterbrain (Baer, 1837) and thus metencephalon (Sharpey et al., 1867) from the last position to the penultimate position, and replacing metencephalon (Sharpey et al., 1867) with myelencephalon (Huxley, 1871)-which had previously referred to the cerebrospinal axis (Meckel, 1817) as a whole: myelencephalon (Owen, 1868)-as "constituting a violation of scientific ethics that merits the severest reprobation"! The situation is perfectly illustrated by comparing Gehuchten (1893, Figs. 32, 33) with Gehuchen (1906, Fig. 14)-before and after His (1895, Fig. 20 and p. 162). more details

Metencephalon ( Sharpey et al., 1867 ) : Original Latin form of afterbrain (Baer, 1837), that is, the medulla (Winslow, 1733); see p. 577. Also see metencephalon (Huxley, 1871). more details

Metencephalon ( Williams & Warwick, 1980 ) : Synonym for macrodissected adult human pons (Haller, 1747); p. 864. more details

Microconnection ( Thompson & Swanson, 2010 ) : A connection between two individual neurons (Waldeyer, 1891), or between one neuron and another cell like a muscle or gland cell; p. 15239. At this level of analysis connections are established by synapses (Foster & Sherrington, 1897). In normal, healthy animals qualitative aspects of microconnection patterns are genetically hardwired but their quantitative features can be modified by learning, stress, and a variety of other factors. more details

Micropathway : A pathway between two neurons (Waldeyer, 1891). more details

Midbrain ( MB ; Baer, 1837 ) : The middle of the three primary brain vesicles of the vertebrate neural tube (Baer, 1837) that develops into the adult midbrain (Baer, 1837), a topographic division between forebrain (Goette, 1873) and rhombicbrain (His, 1893b). Malpighi (1675; see translation by Adelmann, 1966, p. 1003) identified the cristate vesicle in the chick neural tube, and Baer named it the midbrain vesicle for embryonic vertebrates (1837, p. 106; in the original German, "mittlere Hirnbläachen"). Baer also named the corresponding adult structure the midbrain (1837, p. 107; in the original German, "Mittelhirn"). A synonym is the Latin mesencephalon (Sharpey et al., 1867). more details

Midline ( Aristotle ) : Synonym for median plane (Henle, 1855). Aristotle (Historia Animalium; see translation by Thompson, 1910, 491b-5) used (the Greek equivalent of) the term for macrodissected adult humans, translated "middle line". Also see Brusca & Brusca (1990, p. 46). more details

Midsagittal plane : Synonym for median plane (Henle, 1855); see Brusca & Brusca (1990, p. 46). more details

Mixed synapse : A synapse (Foster & Sherrington, 1897) that combines the features of both the chemical synapse and the electrical synapse; see Peters et al. (1991, pp. 207-210). more details

Motif : A recurring pattern of connections; that is, a unit chain from which more complex neural networks are constructed. A consensus motif is a recurring pattern of connections in a network of a specific type. more details

Myelencephalon ( Huxley, 1871 ) : Synonym for medulla (Winslow, 1733), pp. 59-60. Also see metencephalon (Huxley, 1871). more details

Myelencephalon ( Owen, 1868 ) : Synonym for vertebrate central nervous system (Meckel, 1817); pp. 266-268. more details

Myelin sheath : A covering of axons (Kölliker, 1896)-and occasionally dendrites (His, 1889) or even cell bodies (Deiters, 1865)-above a particular diameter characteristic for each species that speeds up action potential conduction velocity and is formed by types of glia (Virchow, 1846): oligodendrocyes in the vertebrate central nervous system (Meckel, 1817), and Schwann cells in the vertebrate peripheral nervous system (Meckel, 1817); see Williams (1995, pp. 951-954), Toesca (1996). The myelin sheath was probably discovered by Remak (1837) who described a very thin-walled tube around his primitive band, the axon; see Van der Loos (1967, p. 19). more details

Myelinated axon : An axon (Kölliker, 1896) with a myelin sheath, which is formed by types of glia (Virchow, 1846): oligodendrocyes in the vertebrate central nervous system (Meckel, 1817), and Schwann cells in the vertebrate peripheral nervous system (Meckel, 1817). Axons above a threshold diameter characteristic of particular species become myelinated, thus forming the set of thicker axons; see Williams (1995, pp. 951-954). The myelinated axon was probably discovered by Remak (1837) who described a primitive band-the axon-within a very thin-walled tube (see Van der Loos, 1967, p. 19). more details

Nerve cell : Synonym for neuron (Waldeyer, 1891). The term was used by Kölliker (1852; see Shepherd, 1991, p. 35); also see Peters et al. (1991, p. 11). more details

Nerve fiber ( nerves (Herophilus, c335-280 BC) ) : An unmyelinated axon or a myelinated axon; literally accurate for the peripheral nervous system, but often applied (ambiguously) to the central nervous system as well. In the second century Galen (see translations by Duckworth, 1962, p. 254; Clarke, 1968, p. 124) recognized the fibrous nature of nerves (Herophilus, c335-280 BC). Leeuwenhoek (1718; see Van der Loos, 1967, pp. 10-16) identified the nerve fiber itself as the ultimate structure of nerves and called it a vessel, whereas Ehrenberg (1833, pp. 453-456) called it a nerve fiber. more details

Nerve net : A topographic division that is a longitudinally arranged nervous system (Monro, 1783) with radial symmetry and relatively evenly and diffusely distributed neurons (Waldeyer, 1891), characteristic of Coelenterates, Ctenophores, Hemichordates, Pogonophores, and adult Echinoderms. While small neuron condensations (called marginal ganglia) and circular zones (called nerve rings) with a higher concentration of neurons and neuron extensions can be present, nerves (Herophilus, c335-280 BC) are not clearly differentiated, and nothing like a central nervous system (Meckel, 1817) is present; see Bullock & Horridge (1965, p. 12 & Ch. 8), Cobb (1995). It is thus a nervous system with no clear topographic divisions-a divisionless nervous system. The nervous system of hydra (a Coelenterate) is an example of a relatively simple diffuse nerve net, whereas the terminal plexuses in the wall of the mammalian digestive system can be viewed as analogous to a relatively differentiated nerve net. more details

Nerve ring : A topographic division consisting of a circular zone of a nerve net with a higher concentration of neurons (Waldeyer, 1891) and neuron extensions; see Bullock & Horridge (1965, p. 475), Cobb (1995, p. 411). more details

Nerve terminal ( Cajal, 1899 ) : Synonym for axon terminal (Barker, 1899); term used for Golgi material by Cajal (1899, p. 67). more details

Nerves ( n ; Herophilus, c335-280 BC ) : A nerve is a topographic division with macroscopically recognizable bundles of axons (Kölliker, 1896), or white matter tracts, in the peripheral nervous system (Meckel, 1817) of invertebrates and vertebrates. A nerve can have a number of structural differentiations like roots, trunk, and branches, and can have a peripheral ganglion associated with it. When a series of ganglia is associated with a white matter tract, it is referred to as a peripheral nerve cord in the peripheral nervous system (Meckel, 1817), a central nerve cord in the central nervous system (Meckel, 1817) of invertebrates, or a radial nerve cord in a nerve net of invertebrates. Herophilus (c335-c280 BC), the founder of human anatomy, is credited with discovering nerves, including most of the cranial nerves (Longet, 1842) and spinal nerves (Camper, 1760) by distinguishing them from arteries; see Solmsen (1961, p. 185), von Staden (1989, pp. 250-252), and Longrigg (1993, pp. 192, 211). more details

Nervous system ( NS ; Monro, 1783 ) : One system in the set of body systems. According to Bullock & Horridge, "A nervous system may be defined as an organized constellation of cells (neurons) specialized for the repeated conduction of an excited state from receptor sites or from other neurons to effectors or to other neurons." (1965, p. 6; also see Brusca & Brusca, 1990, p. 81). The structural arrangement or organization of connections between these neurons (Waldeyer, 1891), or more generally nodes, forms a neural network called the wiring diagram of the nervous system (Monro, 1783). In many animals the nervous system also contains glia (Virchow, 1846), and is invaded by the circulatory system. It is the chief system that integrates adjustments and reactions of the organism to internal and environmental conditions; see Dorland's (2003). In all animals the nervous system probably differentiates from the embryonic ectodermal layer; see Brusca & Brusca (1990, p. 103). The nervous system as such was probably first recognized (in writings that survive) by Rufus of Ephesus (fl. c100; see Clarke & O'Malley, 1996, p. 13); Monro (1783, p. 1) introduced the term as now used. more details

Nervous system ( Willis, 1664 ) : Willis's use of the term in his comparative anatomical research was synonymous with peripheral nervous system (Meckel, 1817); see Willis translation by Pordage (1681, p. 125ff.). more details

Nervous system parts : Objects in the nervous system (Monro, 1783) above the level of neuron types (Bota & Swanson, 2007). more details

Network : Short form of neural network. more details

Neural network : The structural arrangement of all neurons (Waldeyer, 1891) and their connections in a nervous system (Monro, 1783). A neural network has a set of nodes and the connections between them and other parts of the body like muscles and glands. A complete neural network can be distinguished from a neural subnetwork, which is an arbitrary subset of the complete neural network, often distinguished on functional grounds. more details

Neural plate ( NPL ; Stricker, 1860 ) : The medial differentiation of the embryonic vertebrate ectodermal layer, dorsal (Barclay, 1803) to the notochord, that goes on by the process of neurulation to form the neural tube (Baer, 1837); observed in macrodissected chick embryos by Malpighi (1673, Tab. I), and named thus by Stricker (1860, p. 474) based on toad embryo histology. more details

Neural subnetwork : An arbitrary subset of a complete neural network, often distinguished on functional grounds. A closely related term is neural subsystem. more details

Neural subsystem : A subset of the complete nervous system (Monro, 1783) defined on functional grounds; for example, the visual system or the somatic motor system. A closely related term is neural subnetwork, but formally a neural subsystem would include objects other than neurons (Waldeyer, 1891). more details

Neural tube ( NT ; Baer, 1837 ) : The embryonic primordium of the adult cerebrospinal axis (Meckel, 1817) that is formed from the neural plate (Stricker, 1860) by the process of neurulation; see Nieuwenhuys et al. (2008, pp. 7-9). Galen probably glimpsed the macrodissected mammalian neural tube (see Adelmann, 1966, p. 747) and Baer (1837, p. 59) introduced the term for macrodissected vertebrate embryos. Varolio (1573, see English translation, 1969, p. 34) observed three transparent globules (tres globulos transparentes in Latin) in the 9-day macrodissected chick embryo and Baer (1837, pp. 106, 107) called them the three primary brain vesicles (primären Hirnbläschen in German and Vesiculae cerebrales in Latin): anterior or forebrain primary vesicle (vordere Bläschen in German), middle or midbrain primary vesicle (mittleres Bläschen in German), and posterior or hindbrain primary vesicle (hinteres Bläschen in German). He also observed that they develop into 5 vesicles going on to form the 5 morphological elements or basic parts of the adult vertebrate brain (Cuvier, 1800): Vorderhirn, Zwischenhirn, Mittelhirn, Hinterhirn, and Nachhirn in the original German. Sharpey et al. (1867, p. 577) gave the English and Latin equivalents of these 5 parts: secondary forebrain or prosencephalon, interbrain or diencephalon, midbrain or mesencephalon, secondary hindbrain or epencephalon, and afterbrain or metencephalon. In the Foundational Model of Connectivity these 5 parts are called endbrain (Kuhlenbeck, 1927) or telencephalon (Kuhlenbeck, 1927), interbrain (Baer, 1837) or diencephalon (Sharpey et al., 1867), midbrain (Baer, 1837) or mesencephalon (Sharpey et al., 1867), hindbrain (Baer, 1837) or epencephalon (Sharpey et al., 1867), and afterbrain (Sharpey et al., 1967), metencephalon (Sharpey et al., 1867) or medulla (Winslow, 1733). The hindbrain (Baer, 1837) consists of cerebellum (Aristotle) and pons (Haller, 1747). more details

Neurite : Term often used now for a neuron extension when its identity as axon (Kölliker, 1896), dendrite (His, 1889), or amacrine extension is unclear; see Peters et al. (1976, p. 9; 1991, p. 10). The term was originally coined to refer to the axon by Rauber (1894). more details

Neuron ( Waldeyer, 1891 ) : For the nervous system (Monro, 1783), the basic structural and functional unit at the level of cells (Hooke, 1665). The connections of neurons form the connectome and wiring diagram. Probably discovered microscopically by Dutrochet (1824; Pl. 2, fig. 20) in unfixed molluscan ganglia (Galen, c173) and named thus by Waldeyer (1891, p. 1352); also see Peters et al. (1991, p. 11). more details

Neuron extension : A thin cytoplasmic projection from the cell body (Deiters, 1865) that may be axon (Kölliker, 1896), dendrite (His, 1889), or amacrine extension. Synonym is neuron process. more details

Neuron population ( POP ; Burns, 2001 ) : An arbitrarily defined set of neurons (Waldeyer, 1891) that may or may not correspond exactly to a specific gray matter region or neuron type (Bota & Swanson, 2007). For example, a neuron population is formed by a subset of the individual neurons that together constitute a neuron type. In contrast, however, all neurons within an anterograde pathway tracer injection site that spreads to involve multiple adjacent gray matter regions, or an irregular extent within a single gray matter region, form the neuron population associated with that injection site. Another example of this type would be all neurons within multiple gray matter regions that project to a single gray matter region-as demonstrated, for example, by a retrograde pathway tracer injection site. A third example would be all neurons in the hypothalamus (Kuhlenbeck, 1927) that express the corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) gene following hypovolemic stress, as demonstrated by in situ hybridization. In general, a site contains a neuron population. Term thus defined was introduced by Burns (2001, p. 1201 and Fig. 10). more details

Neuron process : Synonym for neuron extension. Use of neuron process is discouraged because process could easily be misinterpreted to mean an action or series of actions; see Oxford English Dictionary (1989). Purkinje (1838, e.g., Fig. 16) used the term process (Fortsätze in the original German) for extensions of neuron cell bodies (Deiters, 1865)-which he referred to as gangliöse körperchen, ganglionic bodies; see Barker (1899, p. 66), Jones & Cowan (1983, p. 290). "Process" has been used in anatomy to describe a protuberance or projection since at least the 16th century; see Oxford English Dictionary (1989, def. 13). more details

Neuron type ( Bota & Swanson, 2007 ) : For purposes of wiring diagrams, neuron types are defined and classified primarily by their connections and, secondarily by their location, shape, and size. Neurons (Waldeyer, 1991) can be placed in a seven-level taxonomic hierarchy, with neuron types occupying a level equivalent to species in animal taxonomy. Formally, a neuron type is defined as a distinct cluster in polythetic parametric space, with the main parameter being connections, secondary parameters being location, shape, and size, and tertiary parameters also helpful. An example of a neuron type is blue cone, of the neuron group cone, of the neuron class photoreceptor, of the neuron category visual, of the neuron division sensory, of the cell type neuron, with no known neuron varieties of this neuron type, at least in rat (see Bota & Swanson, 2007). Neuron types can consist of a single identified neuron (most common for invertebrates) or a set of neurons sharing the same parametric space. Neuron types were first recognized by Purkinje (1838) and first classified by Golgi (1873). more details

Neuropil ( nep ; Waldeyer, 1891 ) : The gray matter (Meckel, 1817) compartment exclusive of cell bodies (Deiters, 1865) and vascular cells, thus consisting of the cytoplasmic extensions of neurons (Waldeyer, 1891) and glia (Virchow, 1846), including synapses (Foster & Sherrington, 1897). It was discovered histologically in spiders by Leydig (1855, p. 413), who called it the Punktsubstanz, or dotted substance in English; Waldeyer first used the term (1891, p. 1354). Also see Bullock & Horridge (1965, pp. 16, 27, 54), Peters et al. (1991, Ch. 11). more details

Node : The site of origin or of termination of a connection at the level of a gray matter region (macronode), neuron type (Bota & Swanson, 2007) (mesonode), or individual neuron (Waldeyer, 1891) (micronode). Nodal masses of gray matter were described systematically as long ago as Meynert (1872, p. 654). more details

Nomenclature ( Bota & Swanson, 2010 ) : In the Foundational Model of Connectivity a set of terms that refers to a nervous system part. more details

Nucleus : See gray matter nucleus and cell nucleus (Brown, 1833). more details

Open chain : A series of connections that do not lead back to a node in the series; when a connection leads back to a node in the series there is a closed chain. more details

Oral-aboral axis ( Schulze, 1893 ) : Synonym for rostrocaudal axis; often preferred in the comparative anatomy of invertebrates; p. 5. Also see Willmer (1990, p. 15). more details

Origin ( Swanson & Bota, 2010 ) : The neuron (Waldeyer, 1891), neuron type (Bota & Swanson, 2007), or gray matter region that generates a connection or output; see Herrick (1915, p. 108). more details

Outer ( Galen, c173 ) : Away from the center of an object in the body; the opposite of inner; see Standring (2008, p. xxii). The dichotomy was used at least as far back as Galen in the second century; see, for example, translations by May (1968, pp. 711, 377) and Singer (1999, p. 131). Aristotle wrote in De Partibus Animalium of parts within the body and those placed on the outside; see translation of Ogle (1912, 674, 5-6). more details

Output : A connection from a neuron (Waldeyer, 1891), neuron type (Bota & Swanson, 2007), or gray matter region to another neuron, neuron type, or gray matter region. All such nodes can have multiple outputs. more details

Pachymeninges : Synonym for dura (Galen, c177); another form is pachymeninx; see Standring (2008, p. 389). more details

Pallium ( Burdach, 1822 ) : Synonym for cerebral cortex (Bauhin, 1605). Used first by Burdach for macrodissected adult humans (1822, p. 13), and by many others since, including His (1895, p. 85), Nauta & Feirtag (1986, p. 45). In Latin "pallium" refers to a mantle, cloak, or blanket (Oxford Latin Dictionary, 1996). more details

Parasympathetic ganglia ( PSY ; Kuntz, 1934 ) : Synonym for terminal ganglia (Gaskell, 1886); apparently named thus by Kuntz (1934, p. 126). more details

Paravertebral ganglia ( GPAS ; Langley, 1900 ) : A topographic division of autonomic ganglia (Langley, 1900) associated with the sympathetic trunk (Winslow, 1733) and branches arising directly from it, including the carotid ganglion (Lobstein, 1831), sympathetic trunk ganglia (Winslow, 1733), and intermediate ganglia. Falloppio (1561; see Johnstone, 1765, p. 177) is credited with discovering them in macrodissected adult humans, for contemporary terminology see Durward (1951, p. 1126). more details

Paravertebral nerves ( PAN ; Langley, 1898 ) : A topographic division of autonomic nerves (Langley, 1898) that macroscopically appear to arise from paravertebral ganglia and/or the sympathetic trunk (Winslow, 1733). more details

Parencephalon ( Aristotle ) : Synonym for cerebellum (Aristotle). This is the original term, derived from the Greek, used by Aristotle in Historia Animalium for the cerebellum; see Longrigg (1993, p. 212) and Clarke & O'Malley (1996, pp. 629-630). more details

Parencephalon ( Kupffer, 1893 ) : Synonym for thalamus (His, 1893a); in the original German, Nebenhirn, p. 61 and Fig. F-p. more details

Parent axon : Synonym for axon trunk. Galen in the second century used the term parent for macrodissected nerves (Herophilus, c335-280 BC) as a whole; see translation by Duckworth (1962, p. 203). more details

Pars optica hypothalami ( His, 1893b ) : Basically it consists of the anterior and tuberal regions (Swanson, 1987, p. 2) of the hypothalamus (Kuhlenbeck, 1927). It is part of the telencephalon (His, 1893b); see His (1893b, p. 178; 1895, p. 158). more details

Partial correspondence ( Swanson & Bota, 2010 ) : In neuroanatomy many terms do not fit exactly into any part of the structural hierarchy. Such terms partly correspond to a standard term somewhere in the hierarchy, and should be defined (described) with reference to the immediately higher standard term within which it completely fits. The concept of a partly corresponding term is important because such a term generally does not share all of the properties of any particular reference term and thus cannot fit exactly anywhere within the hierarchy as such-it does not have a strict PART-OF relationship with any component of the Foundational Model of Connectivity hierarchy. This is because gray matter regions and neuron types (Bota & Swanson, 2007) generally are not homogeneous; instead, they have defining and differentiable features in parameter space that occur in gradients. As a result different sites within a gray matter region generally have different features and thus different microconnections. more details

Partly corresponds : Verb form of partial correspondence; partly corresponding is another form. more details

Passing synapse : English form of "synapse en passant". more details

Pathway : The component of a connection that is demonstrated in a specific tracing experiment or analysis. This definition is specific to the Foundational Model of Connectivity where it is useful for description to have terms distinguishing between pathway and connection. As with connections, there can be macropathways, mesopathways, and micropathways. Other usages of the word pathway are common, especially as a synonym for connection or projection. The term path or pathway was used for a route of transmission in the nervous system (Monro, 1783) as long ago as Galen (c173); see translations by May (1968, pp. 401-402) and Clarke & O'Malley, (1996, p. 630). more details

Perikaryon ( Foster & Sherrington, 1897 ) : The cell body (Deiters, 1865) without the cell nucleus (Brown, 1833); p. 928, also see Peters et al. (1991, p. 14). more details

Peripheral ( Barclay, 1803 ) : Toward the surface of the body. Barclay (1803, pp. 120-121, 164) introduced a formal distinction between central (Barclay, 1803) and peripheral. more details

Peripheral ganglia ( GPR ; Swanson & Bota, 2010 ) : A peripheral ganglion is a macroscopic aggregation of neurons (Waldeyer, (1891), that is, a gray matter region, in the peripheral nervous system (Meckel, 1817) of invertebrates and vertebrates; see Bullock & Horridge (1965, p. 51), also see ganglion (Galen, c173). more details

Peripheral longitudinal communicating branch : The segment of a peripheral nerve cord trunk between two peripheral ganglia associated with the corresponding peripheral nerve cord as a whole. more details

Peripheral nerve cord ( Swanson & Bota, 2010 ) : A topographic division that has a longitudinal peripheral nerve cord trunk (equivalent to a white matter tract) with a series of more or less regularly spaced peripheral ganglia along its course, and a trunk segment between two adjacent ganglia called a peripheral longitudinal communicating branch. The prototypical vertebrate example is the sympathetic trunk (Winslow, 1733) with its sympathetic trunk ganglia (Winslow, 1733)-together the sympathetic cord. more details

Peripheral nerve cord trunk : The equivalent of a white matter tract for a peripheral nerve cord, with peripheral ganglia distributed along its length. more details

Peripheral nervous system ( PNS ; Meckel, 1817 ) : In bilateral animals, a topographic division with condensations of the nervous system (Monro, 1783) consisting of nerves (Herophilus, c335-280 BC) and ganglia (Galen, c173). When a PNS is present, its obligate companion topographic division is a central nervous system (Meckel, 1817). There is no known isolated part of the PNS that does not have a connection to the rest of the nervous system; see Bullock & Horridge (1965, pp. 9-14). While the nerves were discovered by Herophilus (335-280 BC; see Solmsen, 1961, p. 185; von Staden, 1989, pp. 250-252), the term peripheral nervous system as currently understood was first used by Meckel (1817; see English translation 1832, p. 153). more details

Pia ( PI ; Galen, c192 ) : The innermost of the meninges (Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus, c1700 BC), closely covering the brain (Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus, c1700 BC) and spinal cord (Galen, c162-c166) and consisting of reticular, elastic, and collagenous fibers. It is histologically similar to the arachnoid (Blasius, 1666), and the two are often considered together as the leptomeninges; see Dorland's (2003), Standring (2008, p. 389). The pia was apparently known to Hippocrates in Places in Man (see translation by Potter, 1955, p. 23) and was described and named such by Galen (c192; see translation by Duckworth, 1962, p. 6). more details

Pia mater ( Ali ibn' ul-Abbas, d994 ) : Synonym for pia (Galen, c192); for naming see Wiberg (1914, p. 86-89). more details

Plexus ( plx ; Galen, c192 ) : A general term for a group of interconnecting neurons (Waldeyer, 1891) or nerve (Herophilus, c335-280 BC) components that may be a sheet of interwoven fibers or a course mesh of communicating nerves, without or with neuron cell bodies (Deiters, 1865), including ganglia (Galen, c173); see Oxford English Dictionary, 1989; Bullock & Horridge, 1965, p. 1606). Examples include nerve nets, prevertebral plexuses, and spinal nerve plexuses (with postplexus spinal nerves distal to them). Galen (c192; see translation by Duckworth, 1962, p. 243) used the term plexus in describing the macrodissected adult mammalian brachial plexus (Camper, 1760). more details

Pons ( P ; Haller, 1747 ) : The ventral (Schulze, 1893) topographic division of the hindbrain (Baer, 1837); the dorsal (Barclay, 1803) topographic division is the cerebellum (Aristotle). The middle cerebellar peduncle on the periphery of the macrodissected adult human pons ("bridge" in English) was identified by Varolio (1573, Fig. I, f. 17v; also see Clarke & O'Malley 1996, pp. 634-635, 821). Collins (1685, see Tab. 48-L, his caudex of medulla oblongata) identified the pons as defined here, and Haller (1747, see translation by Mihles, 1754, pp. 287, 296) provided the term itself. Pons Varolii (Bell, 1802) is a synonym. more details

Pons Varolii ( Bell, 1802 ) : Synonym for macrodissected adult human pons (Haller, 1747); see Pls. VII-8, IX-N, X-b. more details

Posterior ( Aristotle ) : Caudal (Cleland, 1879) in relation to the longitudinal axis (Barclay, 1803); commonly used in this way for comparative anatomy, as was the case for Aristotle in De Partibis Animalium; see, for example, translation of Ogle (1912, 684b-25). Vicq d'Azyr (1786, pp. 51, 58) first clearly defined the term as behind or opposite the face, corresponding in most vertebrates to caudal, and in humans to dorsal (Barclay, 1803) or posterior (Galen, c177). Discarding the ambiguous terms anterior and posterior has been urged since at least 1880 (Spitzka, 1880, p. 75); also see anterior (Aristotle), Standring (2008, Fig. 1). more details

Posterior ( Galen, c177 ) : Dorsal (Barclay, 1803) in relation to the longitudinal axis (Barclay, 1803); commonly used in this way for human and other primate anatomy, as was the case for Galen; see translations of Singer (1999, p. 129) and Duckworth (1962, pp. 229, 231). Also see anterior (Aristotle), Standring (2008, Fig. 1). more details

Postplexus spinal nerves : Spinal nerves (Camper, 1760) distal to the spinal nerve plexuses. The major ones were described for macrodissected animals except human in the second century by Galen; see translations of Duckworth (1962, pp. 230-264) and May (1968, pp. 598-603). more details

Postsynaptic : Referring to the postsynaptic compartment (De Camilli et al., 2001). more details

Postsynaptic compartment ( De Camilli et al., 2001 ) : The part of a chemical synapse that binds neurotransmitters released from the presynaptic compartment (De Camilli et al., 2001) into the synaptic cleft; see pp. 112-113. more details

Presynaptic : Referring to the presynaptic compartment (De Camilli et al., 2001). more details

Presynaptic compartment ( De Camilli et al., 2001 ) : The part of a chemical synapse that releases neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft for action on the postsynaptic compartment (De Camilli et al., 2001); see p. 93 ff. more details

Prevertebral ganglia ( GPRS ; Gaskell, 1886 ) : A topographic division of autonomic ganglia (Langley, 1900) associated with the prevertebral plexuses. Galen in the second century saw at least part of them-the celiac ganglion (Walter, 1783)-in macrodissected adult animals except humans; see translations by Duckworth (1962, pp. 217-218), May (1968, pp. 695-696, 711), Smith (1971, p. 179). Gaskell (1886, p. 3) named them for vertebrates based on structure-function criteria. more details

Prevertebral nerves ( PNE ; Gaskell, 1886 ) : A topographic division of autonomic nerves (Langley, 1898) that macroscopically appear to arise from prevertebral ganglia (Gaskell, 1886) and/or prevertebral plexuses, and typically end in terminal plexuses and/or terminal ganglia (Gaskell, 1886). more details

Prevertebral plexuses ( PVE ; Winslow, 1733 ) : A topographic division of autonomic nerves (Langley, 1898) that form an interconnected series of more or less distinguishable perivascular thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic plexuses (Galen, c192) of small communicating branches (Winslow, 1733) or anastomotic nerve fiber bundles. Their functional composition is complex with varying mixtures of postganglinic sympathetic axons (Kölliker, 1896) from paravertebral nerves, preganglionic parasympathetic axons, visceral afferent fibers, and prevertebral ganglia (Gaskell, 1886) that are mostly sympathetic-except in the inferior hypogastric plexus where there is a mixture of sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons (Waldeyer, 1891); see Durward (1951, pp. 1120, 1128, 1138) for name and Williams & Warwick (1980, pp. 1132-1137). more details

Process : Can be a short form of neuron process (Purkinje, 1838), a neuron extension. more details

Projection : Synonym for connection. more details

Projections : Synonym for connections. more details

Prosencephalon ( Mihalkovics, 1877 ) : Original Latin form of macrodissected adult vertebrate forebrain (Goette, 1873). more details

Prosencephalon ( Sharpey et al., 1867 ) : Original Latin form of forebrain (Baer, 1837), the endbrain (Kuhlenbeck, 1927); p. 577. more details

Proximal ( Barclay, 1803 ) : Toward the origin of an object like a tentacle, limb, or nerve; the opposite of distal (Barclay, 1803). Introduced by Barclay (1803, pp. 124-125, 164), also see Standring (2008, p. xxii). more details

Radial nerve cord ( Galen, c173 ) : A topographic division that is a differentiated linear zone of the nerve net in Echinoderms with periodic small ganglia (Galen, c173) along its length, and extending into each of the (most commonly five) arms from the circumoral nerve ring. There is no convincing evidence that the Echinoderm nervous system (Monro, 1783) is divided into central nervous system (Meckel, 1817) and peripheral nervous system (Meckel, 1817); see Cobb (1995, p. 411). A cord segment between two adjacent ganglia is called a longitudinal communicating branch. more details

Radial symmetry : Symmetry around the longitudinal axis (Barclay, 1803) of the body; see Willmer (1990, p. 15), Brusca & Brusca (1990, p. 44). more details

Reference term : Synonym for standard term. It is not preferred because of possible confusion with literature references. more details

Region : Shortened form of gray matter region, though other definitions are found in the literature. more details

Rhombencephalon ( His, 1893b ) : Latin synonym for rhombicbrain (His, 1893b); p. 173. more details

Rhombicbrain ( RB ; His, 1893b ) : The caudal (Cleland, 1879) of the three primary brain vesicles-the primary hindbrain vesicle (Baer, 1837)-of the vertebrate neural tube (Baer, 1837) develops into the adult topographic division, the rhombicbrain. The latter contains the hindbrain (Baer, 1837) or synonymous secondary hindbrain (Sharpey et al., 1867)-which is the cerebellum (Aristotle) and pons (Haller, 1747)-combined with the medulla (Winslow, 1733) or afterbrain (Baer, 1837). His introduced rhombicbrain for macrodissected adult vertebrates (in the original German, "Rautenhirn", p. 173), and Herrick (1915, p. 121), for example, applied the English form used here. Synonyms include rhombencephalon (His, 1893b), epencephalon (Owen, 1868), hindbrain (Carpenter, 1976). more details

Rostral ( Schulze, 1893 ) : Toward the mouth along the longitudinal axis (Barclay, 1803) of the body; the opposite of caudal (Cleland, 1879); p. 6. Originally, toward the beak of a ship's prow ("rostrum"). In the BNA, His (1895) wrote, "The introduction of the word Rostrum for the cephalic pole of the axis of the body I deem an essential enrichment of our language. The adjective Rostral seems to me indispensable as an ontogentic expression." (p. 110; see translation by Eycleshymer, 1917, p. 109). Also see rostrocaudal axis. more details

Rostrocaudal axis : Equally acceptable synonym for longitudinal axis (Barclay, 1803), but also indicating polarity or direction toward the oral (Schulze, 1893) or rostral (Schulze, 1893) end, or toward the aboral (Schulze, 1893) or caudal (Cleland, 1879) end, of the axis; see oral-aboral axis (Schulze, 1893); used recently by for example Kuhlenbeck (1973, p. 111), Nauta & Feirtag (1986, pp. 39-40) and Swanson (2003, pp. 223-228). more details

Rostrocaudal plane : Synonym for longitudinal plane (Henle, 1855). more details

Route : The physical course taken by a connection through gray matter regions and/or white matter tracts. more details

Sagittal plane ( Henle, 1855 ) : In animals with bilateral symmetry, the plane of section parallel to the longitudinal axis (Barclay, 1803) of the body and passing dorsal (Barclay, 1803)-ventral (Schulze, 1893), orthogonal to the other longitudinal plane (Henle, 1855), the frontal plane (Henle, 1855). Term introduced by Henle (1855, p. 2), also see Kuhlenbeck (1973, p. 114). more details

Schematic diagram : An illustration of the arrangement of connections that is more abstract than a wiring diagram because it is concerned more with topological than with physical relationships; see Wikipedia (Schematic diagram). more details

Secondary hindbrain ( Sharpey et al., 1867 ) : Synonym for hindbrain (Baer, 1837); p. 577. Also used by for example Strong & Elwyn (1943, p. 13). more details

Site : An arbitrarily defined point, area, or volume in the nervous system (Monro, 1783) that may or may not correspond to a standard structural feature (term); examples include injection site, labeling site, lesion site, stimulation site, activation site, and sampling site. A site encompasses a neuron population (Burns, 2001). more details

Soma : Synonym for cell body (Deiters, 1865); see Peters et al. (1991, p. 14). more details

Somata : Pleural of soma. more details

Somatic spine : The equivalent of a dendritic spine on a neuron cell body (Deiters, 1865), the soma; see Swanson (1976a, p. 54). more details

Spinal bulb ( Chaussier, 1807 ) : Synonym for medulla (Winslow, 1733); introduced for macrodissected adult humans by Chaussier (1807, p. 120). more details

Spinal cord ( SP ; Galen, c162-c176 ) : The caudal (Cleland, 1879) topographic division of the cerebrospinal axis (Meckel, 1817); the rostral (Schulze, 1893) topographic division is the vertebrate brain (Cuvier, 1800). The usual criterion for distinguishing the two divisions in the adult is that the vertebrate brain lies within the skull whereas the spinal cord lies within the spinal (vertebral) column, although this is a difficult problem in practice; see Crosby et al. (1962, pp. 112-120). Definite knowledge of the spinal cord dates to Hippocrates in Fleshes (see translation by Potter, 1995, p. 139), and Galen (c162-c176) used the term specifically-see translation by De Lacy (1978, p. 85). Common synonyms include medulla spinalis (Hippocrates), or spinal medulla in English, and spinal marrow (Bannister, 1578). more details

Spinal marrow ( Bannister, 1578 ) : English form of medulla spinalis (Hippocrates); see Bannister (1578, f. 106v). more details

Spinal marrow ( Varolio, 1573 ) : Term included the spinal cord (Galen, c162-c166), medulla (Winslow, 1733), pons (Haller, 1747), and midbrain (Baer, 1837) for macrodissected adult humans; Fig. 2(1-3) on f. 19r. more details

Spinal marrow ( Vesalius, 1543 ) : Term included the spinal cord (Galen, c162-c166), medulla (Winslow, 1733), and pons (Haller, 1747) of macrodissected adult humans; see translation by Richardson & Carman (2002, p. 222). more details

Spinal medulla : English form of medulla spinalis (Hippocrates); see translations by May (1968, p. 575), Adams (1972, pp. 234, 309), and Potter (1995, p. 139). more details

Spinal nerve ganglia ( GS ; Burdach, 1819 ) : The topographic division consisting of sensory ganglia (Galen, c173) associated with the dorsal roots of the spinal nerve roots (Tiedemann, 1816), divided into cervical spinal ganglia, thoracic spinal ganglia, lumbar spinal ganglia, and coccygeal spinal ganglia. They were discovered in macrodissected adult humans by Coiter (1572, see translation, 1995, pp. 113-115) and named thus by Burdach (1819, vol. 1, p. 136). more details

Spinal nerve plexuses ( plxs ; Galen (c192) ) : A network of communicating branches (Winslow, 1733) between three or more spinal nerves (Camper, 1760); examples are the cervical plexus (Molinetti, 1675), brachial plexus (Camper, 1760), lumbar plexus (Vesalius, 1543), and sacral plexus (Vesalius, 1543). These plexuses (Galen, c192) were identified in macrodissected adult animals except humans in the second century by Galen; see translations of Duckworth (1962, pp. 230-264) and May (1968, pp. 598-603). more details

Spinal nerve primary branches ( spb ; Galen (c192) ) : In general, each spinal nerve trunk divides distally into a spinal nerve dorsal branch (Meckel, 1817) and a spinal nerve ventral branch; this arrangement was identified in macrodissected adult animals except humans in the second century by Galen; see translations by Duckworth (1962, p. 229 ff.) and May (1968, pp. 597-599); for contemporary terminology see Durward (1951, p. 1052 and Fig. 913). more details

Spinal nerve roots ( srt ; Tiedemann, 1816 ) : In general, each of the spinal nerves (Camper, 1760) has a peripheral dorsal root and ventral root between the surface of the spinal cord (Galen, c162-c166) and the plane where they merge into a composite spinal nerve trunk. The spinal nerve roots were discovered in macrodissected adult humans by Coiter (1572, see translation of 1995, p. 115); they were named such by Tiedemann (1816, see translation of 1826, p. 126). more details

Spinal nerve trunk ( spt ; Winslow, 1733 ) : The short segment of a spinal nerve (Camper, 1760) between the junction of the dorsal root and ventral root, and the origin of the spinal nerve primary branches; this arrangement was specifically described for macrodissected adult humans by Winslow (1733, Sect. VI, p. 76); for contemporary terminology see Durward (1951, Fig. 913). more details

Spinal nerves ( spin ; Camper, 1760 ) : The topographic division of vertebrate craniospinal nerves (Herrick, 1915)-the other being cranial nerves (Longet, 1742)-that arises from the spinal cord (Galen, c162-c166) and exits the vertebral or spinal column, and is also distinguished from autonomic nerves (Langley, 1898). They are divided into groups of cervical nerves (Galen, c173), thoracic nerves (Diemerbroeck, 1672), lumbar nerves (Diemerbroeck, 1672), sacral nerves (Camper, 1760), and coccygeal nerves (Camper, 1762), as enumerated now for macrodissected adult humans. Most of them were known to Herophilus (335-280 BC), the founder of human anatomy (see Solmsen, 1961; von Staden, 1989), and the term itself was first used in the currently accepted way for macrodissected adult humans by Camper (1760). The synonym vertebral nerves (Willis, 1664) might be a more accurate match for cranial nerves (Longet, 1742). more details

Spine ( Cajal, 1888 ) : Short form of dendritic spine (Cajal, 1899), or somatic spine; p. 4, "espinas" in Spanish. It may of course also refer to the spinal (vertebral) column. more details

Standard term : A defined term that is chosen from a list of synonyms to represent a concept in the Foundational Model of Connectivity; reference term is a nonpreferred synonym. more details

Structural connection : A long form of connection. more details

Subarachnoid space ( Magendie, 1827 ) : The part of the ventricular-subarachnoid space that lies between the outer and inner layers of meninges (Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus, c1700 BC), the dura (Galen, c177) and pia (Galen, c192), respectively; it is continuous with the ventricles (Hippocrates) and is filled with cerebrospinal fluid. The existence of fluid under the dura, in what is now called the subarachnoid space, was known to Hippocrates (see Millen & Woollam, 1962, p. 1), and named by Magendie (1827, pp. 21, 25) in a variety of macrodissected mammals. more details

Subsystems arrangement of gray matter regions : An essentially neural network arrangement of gray matter regions based on functional subsystems. Swanson (2004, Table B) provided a systematic example for a 4-subsystem network model of rat central nervous system (Meckel, 1817) organization. more details

Subsystems microarchitecture of nervous system ( Swanson & Bota (2010) ) : One of two common orthogonal ways to describe completely the nervous system (Monro, 1873). Subsystems here deal with the accurate microscopic (histological) delineation and description of gray matter regions and white matter tracts, in contrast to the topographic description of nervous system that deals with macroscopic locations in the nervous system. For the nervous system (Monro, 1783), connections and the routes they take are described in terms of gray matter regions and white matter tracts, which are formed by neuron types (Bota & Swanson, 2007), neuron parts, and molecules. An individual nervous system subsystem is a set of connections that form a complex unity with a specific function; also see systems description of body. more details

Superficial ( Galen, c173 ) : A relationship between adjacent objects in the body; an object is superficial to another when it is closer to the surface; the opposite of deep. The dichotomy has been used at least since the second century by Galen; see translation by May (1968, p. 715), also see Standring (2008, p. xxii). more details

Superior ( Vicq d'Azyr, 1786 ) : He defined it as above or toward the head in human anatomy; pp. 51, 116; also see Standring (2008, p. xxii) and anterior (Aristotle). more details

Supporting structures of nervous system ( Swanson & Bota, 2010 ) : Topographic macrostructure features that include the connective tissue coverings of the nervous system (Monro, 17893)-the meninges (Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus, c1700 BC)-and the compartment within and surrounding the nervous system that is filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF; in ventricles-subarachnoid space); see Millen & Woollam (1962). It is important to consider that the circulatory system pervades the nervous system. more details

Supraesophageal ganglion ( Swanson & Bota, 2010 ) : Invertebrate brain that lies dorsal (Barclay, 1803) to the digestive system in annelids and arthropods. One or more supraesophageal ganglia may be involved, depending on how many central nerve cords there are in a species; see Bullock & Horridge (1965, pp. 662, 1609), Reisinger (1972), and ventral ganglia. more details

Synapse ( Foster & Sherrington, 1897 ) : Generally, a natural junction achieving functional conduction between distinct neurons (Waldeyer, 1891), or a neuron and another cell (Hooke, 1665), and accomplished through contact or near contact without regard to mechanism; see Bullock & Horridge (1965, pp. 181, 196). They are usually divided into chemical synapses, electrical synapses, and mixed synapses. The most common in adult vertebrates, the chemical synapse, is a structure-function differentiation consisting of three parts: a neuronal presynaptic compartment (De Camilli et al., 2001) where neurotransmitter is released from the terminal (Cajal, 1899), a synaptic cleft of variable width, and a postsynaptic compartment (De Camilli et al., 2001) that may or may not be neuronal but does have plasma membrane receptors for neurotransmitters. At classical unidirectional chemical synapses neurotransmitters may have feedforward effects on the postsynaptic membranes and feedback effects on presynaptic membranes. It is thought, however, that these synapses are rectifiers, with neural network information flowing from presynaptic neuron to postsynaptic cell, modulated by presynaptic neurotransmitter feedback. In contrast, reciprocal or bidirectional chemical synapses release neurotransmitter on both sides of the synaptic cleft and can thus transmit neural network information in either direction depending on network activity. Bidirectional chemical synapses are characteristic of amacrine extensions rather than axons (Kölliker, 1896). Finally, the distance between presynaptic membrane and postsynaptic membrane can vary enormously, from about 20-30 nm at classical chemical synapses like the neuromuscular junction, to microns for the sympathetic innervation of blood vessels, to centimeters or meters for neurotransmitter released into the blood. Foster & Sherrington (1897, pp. 929, 969) supplied the term; Cajal (1894b, p. 447) had earlier called it an articulation. See Bullock & Horridge (1965, Tab. 2.1), Peters et al. (1991, Ch. 5), Cowan et al. (2001), Sandring (2008, p. 44-48). more details

Synapse en passant : French form of synapse-of-passage more details

Synapse in passing : Form of synapse-of-passage. more details

Synapse-of-passage ( Gerfen & Sawchenko, 1984 ) : A synapse (Foster & Sherrington, 1897) formed by either a terminal-of-passage or a bouton-of-passage; see Gerfen & Sawchenko (1984, pp. 231, 235, Fig. 10-F), Peters et al. (1991, pp. 150, 187, 358). more details

Synaptic bouton : Synonym for terminal (Cajal, 1899); see Jones & Cowan (1983, p. 306). more details

Synaptic cleft : The extracellular fluid domain between the plasma membrane of a particular presynaptic compartment (De Camilli et al., 2001) and the plasma membrane of a postsynaptic compartment (De Camilli et al., 2001); see De Camilli et al. (2001, p 115). more details

Synonym ( Swanson & Bota, 2010 ) : The semantic relationship between a standard term and a synonym is an identical definition, and for relevant Foundational Model of Connectivity terms implies identical connections. more details

Systems description of body ( Swanson & Bota, 2010 ) : One of two common orthogonal ways of describing completely the body; the other is the topographic description of body. An individual body system is a set of interconnected or interdependent parts that form a complex unity with a specific function; see Dorland's (2003), Oxford English Dictionary (1989). A set of body systems together describes completely the structure-function organization of the body; see Brash (1951, p. 4), Hollinshead (1974, pp. v-vii), Williams (1995, pp. 2, 15). Also called a systematic description of body. more details

Tectum ( TC ; Schwalbe, 1881 ) : The dorsal (Barclay, 1803) topographic division of the midbrain (Baer, 1837), essentially dorsal to the cerebral aqueduct (His, 1895) and dominated in mammals by the superior colliculi and inferior colliculi, and contrasting with the ventral (Schulze, 1893) topographic division, the tegmentum (Swanson, 2000). Galen (c177) pointed out the colliculi for macrodissected animals not including humans, referring to them as "little buttocks"; see translation by May (1968, p. 420). Schwalbe (1881, p. 454) apparently introduced the term as currently used, "Decke des Mittelhirns" in the original German; also see Cajal (1899-1904, vol 2, pt 1, p. 449), "el techo" and "la porción tectal" in the original Spanish. Also see Williams & Warwick (1980, p. 940), International Anatomical Nomenclature Committee (1983, p. A68), Federative Committee on Anatomical Terminology (1998, A14.1.06.601). Common synonym is corpora quadrigemina (Winslow, 1733). more details

Tegmentum ( Carpenter, 1976 ) : The tegmentum (Schwalbe, 1881) combined with a corresponding part of the caudally adjacent pons (Haller, 1747) between the pontine gray (Reil, 1809) and cerebellum (Aristotle); pp. 322, 384. The term may predate Carpenter. more details

Tegmentum ( Kölliker, 1896 ) : Defined as a synonym for the substantia reticularis grisea [reticular gray matter] of the midbrain (Baer, 1837), pons (Haller, 1747), and medulla (Winslow, 1733); pp. 209-223. Also see Anthoney (1994, pp. 528-532). more details

Tegmentum ( Meckel, 1817 ) : The tegmentum (Swanson, 2000) without the cerebral peduncle (Tarin, 1753) white matter tract; see English translation (1832, vol. 2, p. 467), "Haube" in the original German. The Latin "tegmentum" (see Burdach, 1822, p. 101, who used the same definition) means "cap" or "covering" in English, and Meckel described it as such for the cerebral peduncle (Tarin, 1753). Hence the synonym for cerebral peduncle (Tarin, 1753), basis pedunculi (Meckel 1817; see English translation, 1832, vol. 2, p. 467); also see Ranson (1920, p. 158). Unfortunately, basis pedunculi later acquired a second meaning, the cerebral peduncle (Tarin, 1753) together with the substantia nigra (Soemmerring, 1791); see Henle (1871, p. 244), Strong & Elwyn (1943, p. 228), Crosby et al. (1962, pp. 221, 260). more details

Tegmentum ( Schwalbe 1881 ) : The tegmentum (Swanson, 2000) without the cerebral peduncle (Tarin, 1753) and substantia nigra (Soemmerring, 1791; p. 450 ff). Later used thus by for example Obersteiner & Hill (1900, p. 69), Crosby et al. (1962, pp. 221, 260, 262), Carpenter (1976, p. 384), Williams & Warwick (1980, p. 935 ff.). more details

Tegmentum ( TG ; Swanson, 2000 ) : The ventral (Schulze, 1893) topographic division of the midbrain (Baer, 1837); the dorsal (Barclay, 1803) topographic division is the tectum (Schwalbe, 1881). Meckel (1817; see English translation, 1832, vol. 2, p. 467) apparently introduced the term and roughly its definition here for macrodissected adult humans, except he excluded the cerebral peduncle (Tarin, 1753), a white matter tract at the base of the midbrain, which is still common today but is included here. As defined here, tegmentum refers to the whole of the midbrain (Baer, 1837) excluding the tectum (Schwalbe, 1881) but including the pretectal region (Scalia, 1972); see Swanson (2000, pp. 522, 526). Usage of this term is very complex, inconsistent, and illogical; see for example Crosby et al. (1962, pp. 221, 260, 262), Carpenter (1976, p. 367 ff.). more details

Telencephalic nuclei ( Crosby et al., 1962 ) : Synonym for basal ganglia of telencephalon (Ranson, 1920) in macrodissected adult humans, and is thus not synonymous with cerebral nuclei (Swanson, 2000); p. 356. more details

Telencephalon ( His, 1893b ) : Based on comparative embryology including human, it included the endbrain (Kuhlenbeck, 1927) and the preoptic, anterior, and tuberal regions (see Swanson 1987, p. 2) of the hypothalamus (Kuhlenbeck, 1927); pp. 173, 178, 179; also see His (1895, p. 158). more details

Telencephalon ( Kuhlenbeck, 1927 ) : Original Latin form of vertebrate endbrain (Kuhlenbeck, 1927); chs. 3, 10. more details

Telencephalon impar ( Kuhlenbeck, 1929 ) : Synonym for telencephalon medium (Herrick, 1910); p. 24, also see Crosby et al. (1962, p. 343). more details

Telencephalon medium ( Herrick, 1910 ) : The unevaginated part of the telencephalon (His, 1893b) surrounding the rostral (Schulze, 1893) end of the third ventricle (Galen, c173), and basically comprising the preoptic region (Swanson, 1976b) of the hypothalamus (Kuhlenbeck, 1927); see Strong & Elwyn (1943, p. 19), Crosby et al. (1962, p. 343). In English, the median telencephalon; see Strong & Elwyn (1943, p. 274)-as contrasted with the evaginated cerebral hemispheres (Tiedemann, 1826). It was clearly defined by Herrick (1910, pp. 493-495) and presaged by Johnston (1909, p. 513). more details

Telodendria ( Rauber, 1897 ) : Originally the end branches of an axon (Kölliker, 1896)-the terminal arborization (Cajal, 1888)-or of a dendrite (His, 1889), with each individual branch a teledendron (singular); Rauber (1897, p. 74), see Barker (1899, p. 82), Böhm et al. (1926, p. 150). Now it usually refers just to the end branches of an axon; see Jones & Cowan (1983, p. 306, note). more details

Term : See standard term, reference term, synonym, partial correspondence. more details

Terminal ( Cajal, 1899 ) : A general term that refers to an axon terminal (Barker, 1899) and/or synapse-of-passage; its characteristic feature is a slight rounded swelling that is presynaptic; Cajal used for Golgi material, p. 67. more details

Terminal arborization ( Cajal, 1888 ) : Abundant branching at the end of an axon trunk or axon collateral (Cajal, 1899), typically with abundant axon terminals (Barker, 1899) and axon varicosities; used by Cajal (1888, p. 10) for Golgi material of bird cerebellum (Aristotle); also see Strong & Elwyn (1925, p. 173). Synonym is telodendria in its modern sense. more details

Terminal autonomic nerves ( TAN ; Swanson & Bota, 2000 ) : A topographic division of autonomic nerves (Langley, 1898) that macroscopically appear to arise mostly from terminal ganglia (Gaskell, 1886) and/or terminal plexuses; nicely illustrated for macrodissected adult humans by Ranson (1920, Fig. 250). more details

Terminal bouton ( Auerbach, 1898 ) : Synonym for axon terminal (Barker, 1899); named by Auerbach (1898); see Peters et al. (1991, pp. 150, 187, 358). more details

Terminal en passant : Synonym for terminal-of-passage. more details

Terminal ganglia ( GT ; Gaskell, 1886 ) : A topographic division of autonomic ganglia (Langley, 1900) lying on or in the walls of innervated viscera; named thus by Gaskell (1886, p. 3) for vertebrates based on structure-function criteria. more details

Terminal plexuses ( TPL ; Swanson & Bota, 2010 ) : A topographic division of autonomic nerves (Langley, 1898) that form more or less discrete anastomoses of small white matter tracts (bundles) in or near the walls of innervated viscera. They are characterized by parasympathetic ganglion cells that only sometimes condense into macroscopically obvious terminal ganglia (Gaskell, 1886). The distinction between terminal plexuses and prevertebral plexuses is clearly illustrated by Ranson (1920, Fig. 250) and Williams & Warwick (1980, Fig. 7-224, and pp. 1122-1137). more details

Terminal-of-passage ( Swanson & Bota, 2010 ) : A terminal (Cajal, 1899) on a very short stalk that protrudes from an axon trunk or axon collateral (Cajal, 1899) along its course rather than at the terminal arborization (Cajal, 1888) of the trunk or collateral. With the light microscope they resemble dendritic spines. See Fox & Barnard (1957, Fig. 9), Gerfen & Sawchenko (1984, pp. 231, 235, Fig. 10-F). more details

Termination ( Swanson & Bota, 2010 ) : The neuron (Waldeyer, 1891), neuron type (Bota & Swanson, 2007), or gray matter region where a connection or output ends; see Herrick (1915, p. 108). more details

Thalamus ( Galen, c173 ) : In at least one instance this term clearly referred to the inferior horn of the lateral ventricle (Vesalius, 1543); see translation by May (1968, p. 687). more details

Thalamus ( TH ; His, 1893a ) : The dorsal (Barclay, 1803) topographic division of the interbrain (Baer, 1837); the ventral (Schulze, 1893) topographic division is the hypothalamus (Kuhlenbeck, 1927). The macrodissected adult human thalamus was clearly illustrated by Vesalius (1543; see translation by Singer, 1952, Figs. 4-8) and the term as defined here was introduced by His (1893a, pp. 161-162). It includes the traditional epithalamus, dorsal thalamus, and ventral thalamus of Herrick (1910, pp. 494, 498); also see Kuhlenbeck (1927, Ch. 9) and Jones (1985, p. 87). more details

Thalamus ( Malpighi, 1673 ) : Basically a synonym for interbrain (Baer, 1837), used in his description of chick development, and short for "thalami nervorum opticorum"; see translation of Adelmann (1966, p. 967). more details

Third ventricle ( V3 ; Galen, c173 ) : The part of the ventricles (Hippocrates) in the median plane (Henle, 1855) of the interbrain (Baer, 1837), continuous rostrally (Schulze, 1893) with the lateral ventricles (Vesalius, 1543) and caudally (Cleland, 1879) with the cerebral aqueduct (His, 1895). Galen (c173; see translations by May, 1968, p. 141 and Singer, 1999, p. 234) discovered and named the third ventricle in the macrodissected adult ox. more details

Topographic arrangement of gray matter regions ( Swanson & Bota, 2010 ) : A hierarchical arrangement of gray matter regions based strictly on a particular scheme of topographic divisions, including topographic divisions of cerebrospinal axis.Swanson (1992, Table A) provided a systematic example for the 10 elementary topographic divisions of cerebrospinal axis of the adult rat. more details

Topographic description of body ( Swanson & Bota, 2010 ) : One of two common orthogonal ways of describing completely the body; the other is the systems description of body. Topography here deals with the accurate geometric delineation and description of locations in the body; see Oxford English Dictionary (1989). For mammals the major locations are head, neck, trunk, and extremities. A hierarchical set of topographic locations together describes completely the body from a structural perspective; see Brash (1951, p. 3), Hollinshead (1974, pp. v-vii), Williams (1995, pp. 2, 15). more details

Topographic division ( Swanson & Bota, 2010 ) : A macrostructural part of the nervous system (Monro, 1783) created at least conceptually by cutting (dividing) with a knife between defined structural landmarks and fitting into a recognized macrostructural hierarchy; see Swanson (2000). The central nervous system (Meckel, 1817) and peripheral nervous system (Meckel, 1817) are the two major topographic divisions, except in animals with just a nerve net, which has divisionless topography. more details

Topographic divisions of cerebrospinal axis ( Swanson & Bota, 2010 ) : Since Classical Antiquity at least six fundamentally different ways to divide the cerebrospinal axis (Meckel, 1817) have been used, although today there is rather broad consensus about a set of major topographic divisions. The set of divisions is arranged in a hierarchical parceling scheme that is based primarily on structural differentiation of the neural tube (Baer, 1837) and its end product in adult macrostructure or gross anatomy (Swanson, 2000). There are 10 elementary divisions at the bottom: cerebral cortex (Bauhin, 1605), cerebral nuclei (Swanson, 2000), thalamus (His, 1893a), hypothalamus (Kuhlenbeck, 1927), tectum (Schwalbe, 1891), tegmentum (Swanson, 2000), cerebellum (Aristotle), pons (Haller, 1747), medulla (Winslow, 1733), and spinal cord (Galen, c162-c166). There is considerably more controversy about smaller topographic divisions below the level of the ten elementary divisions. The 17 terms in the hierarchy below cerebrospinal axis (Meckel, 1817) are very useful "building blocks" that may be combined in many ways to create new terms, like brainstem, which can have different meanings depending on which elementary divisions are included (Swanson, 2000, Tab. 1). more details

Topographic macroarchitecture of nervous system ( Swanson & Bota, 2010 ) : One of two common orthogonal ways to describe completely the nervous system (Monro, 1783). Topography here deals with the accurate macroscopic (gross anatomical) delineation and description of major locations in the nervous system, in contrast to the subsystems description of nervous system that deals with the microscopic-histological organization of gray matter regions and white matter tracts-and the connections they form. A topographic location in the nervous system, like the midbrain (Baer, 1837), is usually a heterogeneous mixture of components, including parts of the circulatory system, meninges (Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus, c1700 BC), ventricles-subarachnoid space, gray matter regions, and white matter tracts. more details

Tract : Shortened form of white matter tract. more details

Transverse axis ( Henle, 1855 ) : The axis orthogonal to the longitudinal axis (Barclay, 1803) or rostrocaudal axis of the body in all animals with a nervous system (Monro, 1783); term introduced by Henle (1855, p. 1). In animals with radial symmetry it is the only axis orthogonal to the longitudinal axis (Barclay, 1803); in animals with bilateral symmetry it is divided into a dorsoventral axis and an orthogonal mediolateral axis with right and left halves; see Kuhlenbeck (1973, p. 112). more details

Transverse plane ( Henle, 1855 ) : The plane of section orthogonal to the longitudinal axis (Barclay, 1803), dividing the body into rostral (Schulze, 1893) and caudal (Cleland, 1879) parts. Term introduced by Henle (1855, p. 1), also see Kuhlenbeck (1973, p. 114). more details

Transverse tract ( Swanson & Bota, 2010 ) : A white matter tract coursing essentially along the transverse axis (Henle, 1855) of the nervous system (Monro, 1783); if a transverse tract crosses the median plane (Henle, 1855) in an animal with bilateral symmetry, the segment related to that plane is a commissure. The basically transverse and longitudinal organization of nervous system tracts was emphasized early on by Spencer (1881) and Cajal (1899-1904, vol. 1, p. 12), and more recently in the orthogon theory of Reisinger (1925, 1972). more details

Unmyelinated axon ( Remak, 1837 ) : An axon (Kölliker, 1896) with no myelin sheath. Axons below a threshold diameter characteristic of particular species remain unmyelinated, thus forming the set of thinnest axons; see Williams (1995, pp. 951-954). The (unmyelinated) axon was discovered by Remak (1837) who called it a primitive band. more details

Vascular cells ( Swanson & Bota, 2010 ) : They form the blood vessels and blood cells within them and are part of the circulatory system; see Peters et al. (1991, Ch. 10). more details

Ventral ( Schulze, 1893 ) : Toward the belly of the body, or away from the back, in the transverse plane (Henle, 1855); the opposite of dorsal (Barclay, 1803). See Schulze (1893, p. 5), and Brusca & Brusca (1990, p. 46). more details

Ventral ganglia ( Swanson & Bota, 2010 ) : The invertebrate central ganglia lying caudal (Cleland, 1879) to the supraesophageal ganglion and ventral (Schulze, 1893) to the digestive system on a central nerve cord trunk; the central ganglia and central nerve cord trunk together form a central nerve cord. See Bullock & Horridge (1965, p. 662). more details

Ventricles ( CEV ; Hippocrates ) : The part of the ventricular-subarachnoid space that lies within the vertebrate central nervous system (Meckel, 1817); they are continuous with the subarachnoid space (Magendie (1827) and are filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). The (cerebral) ventricles were probably known to Anaxagoras of Athens (c488-428 BC; see Mettler, 1947, p. 10; Rasmussen, 1947, p. 1) and were named by Hippocrates in On the Sacred Disease (see translation by Adams, 1972, p. 353). more details

Ventricular system ( VS ; Swanson & Bota, 2010 ) : Synonym for ventricles (Hippocrates). more details

Ventricular-subarachnoid space ( VSS ; Swanson & Bota, 2010 ) : The continuous cavity associated with the vertebrate central nervous system (Meckel, 1817) that is filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Part of the cavity is the central lumen of the vertebrate central nervous system (Meckel, 1817) that is the remnant of the embryonic lumen of the neural tube (Baer, 1837); it is referred to as the (cerebral) ventricles (Hippocrates), with walls formed by a monolayer of ependymal cells, a type of glia (Virchow, 1846). The other part is the subarachnoid space (Magendie, 1827) that lies between the outer and inner layers of meninges (Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus, c1700 BC), the dura (Galen, c177) and pia (Galen, c192), respectively. The ventricles and subarachnoid space are continuous through holes in the roof of the fourth ventricle (Galen, c177) associated with the medulla (Winslow, 1733). The CSF is equivalent to lymph for the central nervous system and eventually drains into the venous part of the circulatory system; see Crosby et al. (1962, pp. 568-579). more details

Vertebrate brain ( BRv ; Cuvier, 1800 ) : The rostral (Schulze, 1893) topographic division of the cerebrospinal axis (Meckel, 1817; the caudal (Cleland, 1879) division is the spinal cord (Galen, c162-c166). The usual criterion for distinguishing the two divisions in the adult is that the vertebrate brain lies within the skull whereas the spinal cord lies within the spinal (vertebral) column, although this is a difficult problem; see Crosby et al. (1962, pp. 112-120). An ancient Egyptian hieroglyph that refers to the human brain (Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus, c1700 BC) probably dates back some five thousand years; see Longrigg (1998, p. 84), Nunn (2002, pp. 43, 50-51, 217), andRocca (2003, p. 21). The brain of vertebrate animals was described by Cuvier (1800, vol. 2, p. 93). more details

Vertebrate central nervous system : See cerebrospinal axis (Meckel, 1817). more details

Vertebrate central nervous system divisions : See topographic divisions of cerebrospinal axis. more details

White matter ( WM ; Meckel, 1817 ) : Since the 16th century the nervous system (Monro, 1783) has been divided more and more precisely into gray matter (Meckel, 1817) and white matter based on their appearance in freshly dissected material observed with the naked eye (macroarchitecture); since the 19th century this differentiation has been made at the histological (microarchitecture) level. White matter is the nervous system compartment that consists primarily of axons (Kölliker, 1896). Its name is derived from its appearance in fresh and fixed macroscopically observed material, its whitish color due to the presence of myelinated axons. However, white matter is often a mixture of myelinated axons and unmyelinated axons, and entire aggregates of axons can be unmyelinated. Therefore, as defined here white matter is a generic term for a nervous system volume where axons are the predominant neural component, although of course glia (Virchow, 1846) and parts of the circulatory system, vascular cells, are also present. White matter can contain scattered neurons (Waldeyer, 1891) that may be assigned either to an adjacent gray matter region, or to a new gray matter region embedded (nested) within the white matter; assignment depends on differentiable neuron types (Bota & Swanson, 2007) involved. There is often a fuzzy border of variable width and difficult to measure between gray matter and white matter. This use of the term was probably introduced by Meckel; see English translation (1832, vol. 2, pp. 152-154), also see Herrick (1915, p. 108). For early history see Clarke & O'Malley (1996, Ch. 10); for modern histological interpretation see Peters et al. (1991), Swanson (2003, pp. 60-66). more details

White matter tract ( Swanson & Bota, 2010 ) : A recognizable division of white matter (Meckel, 1817) in the nervous system (Monro, 1783) that can be bordered by gray matter (Meckel, 1817), another white matter tract(s), or non-neural tissue. Borders between white matter tracts are determined by defined structural landmarks and are commonly arbitrary. White matter tracts may be homogenous or heterogeneous. A homogeneous tract only has one specific mesoconnection (Thompson & Swanson, 2010) within it, whereas a heterogeneous tract has two or more specific mesoconnections within it. The traditional way to view vertebrate white matter tracts is with a myelin stain, supplemented with a reduced silver stain (Brodal, 1981, p. 5). There are many general terms for a white matter tract; some examples include pathway, bundle, fascicle, funiculus, column, peduncle, decussation, commissure, and nerve, whereas others have specific names like corpus callosum, fornix, and internal capsule. As a complete set, white matter tracts can be arranged in various ways, for example, strictly topographically into transverse tracts, longitudinal tracts, and local tracts. White matter tracts were distinguished in the second century by Galen (c177; see translation by Singer, 1999, pp. 231, 234) for macrodissected nonhuman mammals, and were referred to as tracts as long ago as Willis (1664; see translation by Pordage, 1681, pp. 61, 91) for macrodissected adult humans and other large mammals. more details

Wiring diagram ( Swanson & Bota, 2010 ) : An illustration of the physical arrangement of connections (including route information) between a set of nodes-gray matter regions, neuron types (Bota & Swanson, 2007), or neurons (Waldeyer, 1891)-in the nervous system (Monro, 1783). Wiring diagrams can be at various levels of abstraction from three-dimensional models to two-dimensional schema but a complete wiring diagram, by definition, includes route information; see Gregory (1966), Wikipedia (Wiring diagram). more details